
Class bri>yS^ 

Book c > f^^ 

Copyright N° . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Management and 
Feeding of Sheep 



By 

Thomas Shaw 

Lat$ Professor of Animal Hushondry at the 
University of MiKnuseta 



Author of 

The Study of Breeds, Animal Breeding, Feeding Farm Animals, 

The Management and leeding of (>attle. Soiling Crops 

and the Silo, Dry Land Farming, etc. 



NEW YORK 
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

LONDON 

Kecan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Limited 
1914 



S4g 



Copyright, 1914, by 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

All Rights Reserved 



Entered at Stationers' Hal! 
LONDON. ENGLAND 



Printed in U. S. A. 

APR 29 1914 

©CI.A369i)06 






To all students of the agricultural colleges who are 

interested in the study of sheep, and to all persons 

interested in growing the same, this book 

is respectfully dedicated by the Author 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The Authoi desires to acknowledge his indebtedness 
to the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, and also to certain of the ex- 
periment stations, for the aid received from publications 
coming from these sources when writing this volume. 



▼I 



THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

That sheep husbandry in America is not yet beyond the 
threshold of possible advancement cannot be gainsaid, 
and that such is the fact is exceedingly unfortunate for 
American agriculture. Great Britain alone has nearly 
half as many sheep as all the United States. The reason 
why the industry thus languishes cannot be discussed 
here. This book has been written in the hope that it may 
aid in some degree in giving this exceedingly important 
industry that place which it should occupy in the agri- 
culture of this continent. 

Several excellent works on sheep have been written 
in America, but in none of these has the discussion been 
confined to feeding and management. In all of them the 
breeds and breeding have been more or less dwelt upon, 
and just to that extent has the space been curtailed that 
could have been given to discussing feeding and man- 
agement. No work has been written previously which 
dwells solely upon these phases of sheep husbandry. That 
there is room for such a work will be conceded by all who 
have thought upon the question. 

In writing this treatise, the Author has aimed to give 
in orderly sequence and in simple language the subjects 
discussed and everything pertaining to the discussion of 
the various phases of these. The efifort has also been 
made to discuss both feeding and management with such 
fullness and comprehensiveness as would not be incon- 
sistent with conciseness of statement. The breeds of 
sheep, the general subject of breeding and the general 
principles that relate to feeding are not dwelt upon, as 
these have been discussed at some length in works pre- 
viously written by the Author. 

St. Anthony Park, Minnesota, 1914. 

vll 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 
Sheep as Improvers of Soil Fertility 

PaK« 

1. Why the Sheep Has a Golden Hoof 1 

(a) Because it brings enrichment to the soil. 

(b) Because it is the unchangeable foe of weeds. 

(c) Because of the dual return given annually. 

(d) Fertility is to be reckoned with profits. 

2. What Sheep Remove from the Soil 3 

(a) The fertility removed in carcass and wool. 

(b) The fertility brought up from the subsoil. 

(c) The enduring character of sheep pastures. 

;j. Why the Droppings of Sheep Are Valuable 5 

(a) Because of their chemical constituents. 

(b) Because of their readily available condition. 

(c) Because of their even distribution. 

(d) Because they are left where most needed. 

4. Fertilizing Poor Land Quickly at Low Cost 7 

(a) Grazing with sheep on pasture. 

(b) Supplementing the pasture with concentrates. 

(c) Using commercial fertilizers on the pastures. 

(d) FertiHzing distant pastures by grazing them. 

5. Sheep and Fertility in Paddocks 8 

(a) The convenience of these in growing soiling food. 

(b) Strewing coarse fodders over these when feeding 

them. 

(c) The frequent renewal of grasses in these. 

6. Sheep and Fertilizer for Gardeners 10 

(a) Gardeners fattening sheep in winter. 

(b) When such feeding should be undertaken. 

(c) Fertilizer may be thus obtained sometimes with- 

out cost. 

(d) Fertilizer for gardens from feeding stations. 

(e) Sheep guano from the western ranges. 

7. How Sheep Manure Takes Harm 11 

(a) It may be injured by leaching. 

(b) It may be injured by molds. 

(c) The wisdom of applying it as early as possible. 

ix 



JC TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER II 
Sheep as Scavengers and Improvers of Crop Yields 

Pago 

1. Sheep as Weed Destroyers 13 

(a) Weeds that sheep will not eat are rare. 

(b) The stage at which they consume them best. 

(c) Sheep as gleaners in pastures. 

(d) Sheep as gleaners amid the stubbles. 

(e) Sheep as gleaners in standing corn. 

(f) Sheep as gleaners in by-places. 

(g) Sheep as gleaners on the summer fallow. 

2. Freeing Land from Weeds by Sheep 17 

(a) When and how this may be done. 

(b) The crops best adapted for such grazing. 

(c) The benefits from such grazing. 

(d) The difficulties that may be encountered. 

(e) The Author's experience therewith. 

it. Sheep as Destroyers of Brush 23 

(a) The aid that they may thus render. 

(b) How far they should be thus used. 

(c) How to manage them when grazing brush. 

4. Improving Grain Yields Through Grazing with Sheep__ 21 

(a) The grain crops thus improved by grazing. 

(b) When and where such results may he looked for. 

(c) When and where such grazing may work harm. 

5. Improving the Stand of Grass Through Grazing with 

Sheep 27 

(a) How newly sown grass is thus improved. 

(b) When newly sown grass is thus improved. 

(c) Where newly sown grass is thus improved. 

(d) When such grazing would be injurious. 

6. Improving Clover Seed Yields Through Grazing with 

Sheep 28 

(a) How such improvement is effected. 

(b) Why sheep do this work most effectively. 

(c) When such grazing may do harm. 

7. Why Sheep Should be Kept on Nearly All Farms 29 

(a) Because of the service they can render. 

(b) A small flock kept almost without cost. 

(c) The conditions are favorable to thrift. 

(d) Why small flocks are not more numerous. 

8. Sheep and Fresh Meat on the Farm 31 

(a) They are specially adapted to furnishing such food. 

(b) The mutton they furnish is a delicacy. 

(c) The influence on the cost of living. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 

CHAPTER III 
Sheep for Wool, for Mutton and for Both Uses 

Page 

1. Classification Based on Use 33 

(a) The divisions based on such classification. 

(b) Where sheep are kept for these uses. 

(c) Which shall be dominant determined by conditions. 

2. The Wool and Mutton Producing Breeds 35 

(a) Which are termed "wool producing." 

(b) Which are termed "mutton producing." 

(c) These distinctions are being modified. 

3. The Influences that Affect Wool Production 37 

(a) The chief of these are climate, food and care, 

breeding and age. 

(b) The influence of climate on wool. 

(c) The influence of food and care on wool. 

(d) The influence of breeding on wool. 

(e) The influence of age on wool. 

4. The Influences that Affect Mutton Production 41 

(a) The chief of these are climate, food, breeding, care 

and wool. 

(b) The influence of climate on mution. 

(c) The influence of food on mutton. 

(d) The influence of breeding on mutton. 

(e) The influence of care on mutton. 

(f) The influence of wool on mutton. 

5. The Wool and Mutton Breeds Contrasted 44 

(a) The contrast as to size. 

(b) The contrast as to form. 

(c) The contrast as to hardihood. 

6. Conditions More Favorable to Wool Production Mainly 45 

(a) Rugged lands of but little value. 

(b) Dry climates where vegetation is parched. 

(c) Situations remote from market. 

(d) Areas with but few inhabitants. 

7. Conditions More Favorable to Mutton Production 

Mainly 46 

(a) Lands valuable and productive. 

(b) Climates favorable to abundant growth. 

(c) Locations near great centers of population. 

3. Crossing Merinos on Mutton Breeds and Their Grades.. 48 

(a) The results as shown in size and weight. 

(b) The results as shown in wool production. 

(c) The results as shown in hardihood. 



Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

9. Crossing Mutton Breeds on Merinos and Their Grades— 50 

(a) The results as shown in size and weight. 

(b) The results as shown in wool production. 

(c) The results as shown in hardihood. 

10. What the Aim Should Be in Wool Production 53 

(a) To secure wool of a desired grade in largest 

quantity. 

(b) To secure its even distribution over the body. 

(c) To secure even and highest quality in the wool. 

11. What the Aim Should Be in Mutton Production 55 

(a) To secure the most flesh compatible with normal 

size. 

(b) To secure highest development in the best parts. 

(c) To secure highest quality in the mutton produced. 

(d) To meet the demands which the markets call for. 



CHAPTER IV 
Wool Described and Classified 

1. What Is Meant by Wool 58 

(a) The condition of wool. 

(b) Wherein hair differs from wool. 

(c) Wool and hair in the improved and unimproved 

breeds. 

2. The Discussion of Fiber in Wool 60 

(a) The form, appearance and size of the fibers. 

(b) The two parts of the fiber. 

(c) The three layers which compose each fiber. 

3. The Discussion of Yolk in Wool . — 62 

(a) What is meant by yolk. 

(b) The mission of yolk in wool. 

(c) Influences that affect yolk in wool. 

(d) The amount of yolk that is desirable. 

4. How Wools Are Classified 64 

(a) On the basis of the length. 

(b) On the basis of diameter, in the fiber. 

(c) On the basis of adaptation to use. 

5. Short, Intermediate and Long Wools 65 

(a) Short wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 

(b) Intermediate wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 

(c) Long wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll 

Page 

Superfine, Fine, Intermediate and Coarse Wool 66 

(a) Superfine wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 

(b) Fine wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 

(c) Medium wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 

(d) Coarse wool, whence obtained and its uses. 

Carding and Combing Wools 68 

(a) Carding wools, whence obtained, and their uses. 

(b) Combing wools, whence obtained, and their uses. 

(c) Delaine wools, whence obtained, and their uses. 

Wool as Distributed Over the Body 70 

(a) Where wool of the best quality is found. 

(b) Where wool of the second best quality is found, 

(c) Where wool of the third best quality is found. 

(d) The further subdivision of these grades. 



CHAPTER V 
Characteristics of Wool 

The Leading Characteristics of Wool 73 

(a) The chief essential qualities in good wool. 

(b) The chief defects in wool. 

(c) Influences from environment hurtful to wool. 
Strength of Fiber in Wool 74 

(a) Strength of fiber defined. 

(b) Indications of strength in fiber. 

(c) How secured and increased. 

Length of Staple in Wool 75 

(a) Length of staple in wool defined. 

(b) Variations in length of staple. 

(c) How secured and increased. 

Thickness or Density in Wool 77 

(a) Thickness or density defined. 

(b) Variations in density. 

(c) How secured and increased. 

Crimp or Curl in Wool 78 

(a) Crimp or curl defined. 

(b) Variations in crimp. 

(c) How secured and increased. 

Softness or Pliancy in Wool 79 

(a) Softness or pliancy defined. 

(b) Variations in softness. 

(c) How softness is secured and increased. 



XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

7. Color in the Staple of Wool 80 

(a) Color in the staple defined 

(b) Variations in the color of wool. 

(c) How desirable color is secured and increased. 

8. Uniformity of Fleece in Wool 81 

(a) Uniformity in fleece defined. 

(b) Variations in uniformity. 

(c) How uniformity is increased and secured. 

(d) How far uniformity is attainable. 

9. Style or Quality in Wool 82 

(a) Style or quality defined. 

(b) Variations in style. 

(c) How secured and maintained. 

10. Closure of Fleece in Wool 83 

(a) Closure of fleece defined. 

(b) The benefits from such closure. 

(c) The extent to which it should be sought. 

11. Felting in Wool 84 

(a) Felting wool defined. 

(b) The causes that produce felting. 

(c) How felting in wool may be prevented. 

)^. Cloudiness in Wool 85 

(a) Cloudy wool defined. 

(b) The causes that produce cloudy wool. 

(c) How cloudiness in wool may be prevented. 

13. Stripy or Watery Wool 86 

(a) Stripy or watery wool defined. 

(b) The causes that produce stripy wool. 

(c) How stripy wool may be prevented. 

14. Break or Joint in Wool 87 

(a) Break or joint defined. 

(b) The causes that produce break or joint. 

(c) How break or joint in wool may be prevented. 

15. Kemp or Jar in Wool 88 

(a) Kemp or jar defined. 

(b) The causes that produce kemp or jar. 

(c) How kemp or jar in wool may be prevented. 

16. ToppiNESs, Broad Toppiness, Black Top and Clots in 

Wool 89 

(a) Toppiness, broad toppiness, black top, and clots 

defined. 

(b) The causes that produce these defects. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 

Page 

ToppiNESS, Broad Toppiness, etc. — Continued 

(c) How these defects may be prevented. 
17. Influences from Environment that Are Hurtful 91 

(a) Injury from burs and how to prevent it. 

(b) Injury from needle grass and how to prevent it 

(c) Injury from substances when taking fodder. 

(d) Injury from exposure or improper housing. 



CHAPTER VI 
Lambs from Birth Until Weaned 

1. The Season When Lambs Should Come 93 

(a) The influences that determine this. 

(b) Milk lambs for the winter market. 

(c) Winter lambs for the spring market. 

(d) Lambs to be sold as breeders. 

(e) Lambs to be finished in the autumn. 

(f) Lambs to be finished in the winter. 

2. The Dams When Nearing Parturition 95 

(a) When important to know the exact time of this. 

(b) How it may be known when the lambs will come. 

(c) When and how to separate such dams. 

3. Special Care at the Lambing Season 97 

(a) Reasons why such care is necessary. 

(b) Necessary in fields as well as in shed. 

(c) It should be ungrudgingly given. 

4. Giving Aid to the Dams in Labor 98 

(a) When such aid may be necessary. 

(b) Why it should be given skillfully and gently. 

(c) It is better not given when all is well. 

.5. Giving Aid to the Young Lambs 100 

(a) Of no advantage when the lambs are strong. 

(b) When aid will be helpful. 

(c) How aid may be given. 

(■>. Reviving Lames that May Have Been Chilled 102 

(a) The methods of reviving them. 

(b) The dangers to be avoided. 

(c) When young lambs are chilled in fields. 

7. Ewes Not Owning Their Lambs 103 

(a) The causes that may lead to this. 

(b) How to manage in such instances. 

(c) Procedure when ewes lose their lambs. 



XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

8. Rearing Lambs by Hand 105 

(a) When such rearing may be necessary. 

(b) The first milk given. 

(c) The cost is usually excessive. 

(d) How such cost may be reduced. 

9. Supplemental Food for Lambs 107 

(a) When supplemental food is needed. 

(b) When supplemental food is given. 

(c) What should determine its character. 

(d) Grain more profitable fed direct than through dams. 

10. Foods Suitable for Young Lambs 108 

(a) Fodders for young lambs. 

(b) Succulence for young lambs. 

(c) Concentrates for young lambs. 

11. The Lamb Creep 110 

(a) The necessity for a lamb creep. 

(b) The lamb creep in the shed. 

(c) The lamb creep in the pasture. 

12. Weaning Lambs and How It Is Done 111 

(a) The age at which lambs should be weaned. 

(b) Weaning should be abrupt rather than gradual. 

(c) Grading the lambs when weaned. 

13. Food FOR Lambs When Weaned 113 

(a) The character of the pasture. 

(b) When supplementary grain food is necessary, 

(c) The best grain mixtures to feed. 

14. Castrating Lambs 114 

(a) When they should be castrated. 

(b) Why they should be castrated. 

(c) The best age at which to castrate. 

(d) How to castrate lambs of different ages. 

15. Docking Lambs 117 

(a) Why lambs should be docked. 

(b) When lambs should be docked. 

(c) How lambs should be docked. 

16. The Registration of Pure-Bred Lambs 110 

(a) They should be given marks soon after birth. 

(b) Why registration should be deferred for a time. 

(c) Why pure breds should be registered the first 

season. 

(d) Why they should be ear-tagged when registered. 



TADLE OF CONTENTS XVll 

Page 

17. Miscellaneous Considerations 120 

(a) Young lambs nursing to excess. 

(b) Furnishing earth to young lambs. 

(c) Water for young lambs. 

(d) Nurse cows for delicate lambs. 



CHAPTER VII 
Feeding and Care of Breeding Ewes 

1. Ewes from Weaning Until Bred , 122 

(a) The age at which breeding should begin. 

(b) From weaning until put in winter quarters. 

(c) Food and care in winter. 

(d) From winter until the mating season. 

2. Management of Ewes at the Breeding Season 124 

(a) Aim to breed when the system is building up 

(b) How such a condition may be attained. 

(c) Methods followed modified by conditions. 

(d) Mating under extensive conditions. 

(e) Mating on the arable farm. 

3. From the Pasture to Winter Quarters 126 

(a) Methods of changing modified by conditions. 

(b) What should be guarded against. 

(c) Benefits from continued partial grazing. 

4. Ideal Conditions for Wintering Ewes 128 

(a) The ideal location for the shed. 

(b) The ideal shed or stable. 

(c) The ideal yard and paddock. 

5. The Grading of the Flock 129 

(a) When such grading may be necessary. 

(b) How such grading may be accomplished. 

(c) The size of the flock when graded. 

6. Food Prior to the Time of Lambing 130 

(a) The fodders that are suitable. 

(b) The succulence that is suitable. 

(c) The concentrates that are suitable. 

7. Exercise for Breeding Ewes When Pregnant 133 

(a) Why such exercise is necessary. 

(b) How to secure the necessary exercise. 

(c) The reserve pasture for winter grazing. 



XVlll TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Vuge 

8. Caring for Ewes at the Time of Lambing 135 

(a) Not much care called for on the pastures. 

(b) Food for ewes during first days after lambing. 

(c) Care of the udder after lambing. 

(d) Grading ewes subsequently to lambing. 

9. Food for Ewes Subsequently to Lambing 137 

(a) Forage that is suitable. 

(b) Succulence that is suitable. 

(c) Concentrates that are suitable. 

10. From the Shed to the Pastures 1.39 

(a) The change should be gradually made. 

(b) The reduction of the fodder. 

(c) The reduction of the grain. 

11. Management When on Pasture 141 

(a) No additional food usually needed for dams. 

(b) Soiling food may be fed if needed. 

(c) Cheaper to furnish supplemental grazing. 

12. Management When Weaning the Lambs 142 

(a) The separation should be abrupt and complete. 

(b) The care called for by the udder. 

(c) A low diet best until the milk flow has ceased 

13. Management of Ewes to Be Discarded 144 

(a) When they should be sold at once. 

(b) The cheapest method of fattening them. 

(c) When they may be fattened in winter. 

14. Miscellaneous Attentions More or Less Called for 144 

(a) The ventilating of the sheds. 

(b) The bedding of the shed and yards. 

(c) Special feeding for ewes whose teeth are failing. 

(d) Protection from cold storms, spring and autumn. 

(e) Tagging and trimming called for. 

(f) The paring of the feet of ewes. 

(g) Dipping for ticks once or twice a year. 

(h) The shed space called for by a breeding ewe. 
(i) The great hazard from close housing. 



CHAPTER VIII 
The Feeding and Care of Rams 

1. Food from Weaning Until Winter 151 

(a) Separating and disposing of the cull males. 

(b) Suitable pastures from weaning until housing. 

(c) Suitable concentrates from weaning until housing. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XIX 

Page 

2. Food and Care the First Winter 152 

(a) Shelter and winter quarters for such rams. 

(b) Food suitable for shearling rams. 

(c) The number that may be kept together. 

(d) Bringing strange rams together. 

3. Stock Rams in Winter 153 

(a) The quarters suitable for such rams. 

(b) The food suitable for such rams. 

(c) Why they should run with the dams. 

4. Food and Care for Sale Rams in Summer ... 154 

(a) The pastures that are suitable. 

(b) Feeding supplementary food. 

(c) The trimming of sale rams. 

5. Food and Care for Stock Rams in Summer __.._... 155 

(a) The pastures that are suitable. 

(b) Feeding supplementary food. 

(c) Preparing for the season of service. 

6. Food and Management During the Season of Service 157 

(a) The quarters for such rams. 

(b) The food for such rams in shed or field. 

(c) The management when in service. 

(d) The service of which rams are capable. 

'I. The Disposal of Rams 160 

(a) The disposal of ram lambs. 

(b) The disposal of shearling rams. 

(c) The disposal of stock rams. 

(d) The age to which rams may be profitably used. 

8. Miscellaneous Attentions Called For 161 

(a) Trimming the wool on sale rams. 

(b) Trimming the feet of rams. 

(c) The chalking of rams in field service. 

(d) Isolating rams brought in from distant flocks. 



CHAPTER IX 
Pastures and Grazing Them By Sheep 

1. The Best N.\tural Grazing Lands for Sheep 164 

(a) Those that have good drainage. 

(b) Those that produce herbage, fine and nutritious 

(c) Those that have ample shade and living water. 

(d) Extensive pastures Ijetter adapted to sheep than to 

cattle. 



XX TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

2. Grass Pastures Permanent in Character 167 

(a) The grasses that usually form these. 

(b) The more prominent indigenous grasses. 

(c) Why permanent pastures are not more used. 

3. Grass Pastures'Temporary in Character 169 

(a) The composition of these pastures. 

(b) The duration of temporary pastures. 

(c) Temporary and permanent pastures in conjunction. 

4. Pastures Supplementary in Char.\cter 170 

(a) The plants that may compose them. 

(b) Combinations in which they may be grown. 

(c) Succession in such pastures. 

5. Pastures for Winter Grazing 174 

(a) In the northern states and Canada. 

(b) On the western ranges. 

(c) In the southern states. 

6. Grazing Sheep on Grass Pastures 176 

(a) The breed should be adapted to the grazing. 

(b) The character of the fencing called for. 

(c) The closeness of the grazing admissible. 

(d) Grazing sheep and other stock together. 

(e) Protecting sheep from substances that adhere to the 

wool. 

(f) The ideal method of grazing grass pastures with 

sheep. 

(g) Renovating such pastures. 

7. Grazing Sheep ON Supplementary Pastures 381 

(a) The requisites for such grazing. 

(b) Grazing on supplementary pastures only. 

(c) When grazed along with grass pastures. 

(d) Alternations in the grazing. 

8. The Benefits From Supplementary Grazing 184 

(a) An aid in removing parasites. 

(b) Has great influence on the production. 

(c) Renders substantial aid in destroying weeds. 

(d) The influence on fertilization. 

(e) Objections to the system. 

CHAPTER X 

Fattening Sheep While Grazing 

1. Sheep Finished on Grass Pastures Without Grain 187 

(a) The mutton much influenced by the grasses. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XXI 

Sheep Finished on Grass Pastures Without Grain— Continued 

(b) The most suitable grasses for such finishing. 

(c) Sheep that finish best on such grazing. 

(d) Sheep finished on grazing in by-places. 

2. Sheep Finished on Grass Pastures with Grain 189 

(a) But little light can be obtained from experiments. 

(b) Feeding grain to sheep in orchards. 

(c) Introducing sheep when fruit is plentiful. 

3. Finishing on Western Grain Fields 191 

(a) Food gathered by sheep thus grazed. 

(b) The difficulties to be overcome. 

(c) Rape and turnips sown with the grain. 

(d) Grazing unharvested grain crops. 

4. Finishing Sheep on Rape 192 

(a) Ideal conditions for such grazing. 

(b) Introducing sheep to the pastures. 

(c) Attentions called for in such grazing. 

(d) Sustaining power in rape pastures. 

(e) Feeding grain while grazing on rape. 

5. Finishing Sheep on Corn 197 

(a) Variety best fitted for such grazing. 

(b) How the grazing should begin. 

(c) Ideal conditions for such grazing. 

6. Finishing Sheep on Peas 199 

(a) When such grazing is practicable. 

(b) How the crop is grown. 

(c) How the grazing is conducted. 

7. Finishing Sheep on Field Roots 200 

(a) Where such grazing is possible. 

(b) How it should be done. 

(c) Feeding supplementary grain. 

8. Finishing Sheep on Other Crops 201 

(a) Grazing ofif cowpeas with sheep. 

(b) Grazing off soy beans with sheep. 

(c) Feeding pumpkins and squash to sheep. 



CHAPTER XI 
Fattening Sheep and Lambs in Winter 

The Sources From Which Obtained 203 

(a) Lambs grown on the farm. 

(b) Lambs on other farms. 

(c) Sheep and lambs grown on the range. 



XXU TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

2. Selecting Sheep for Fattening 205 

(a) Form more important than breed. 

(b) What to look for in form and weight. 

(c) The preferences in regard to age. 

(d) Where to purchase feeders. 

3. Quarters Suitable for Feeding 207 

(a) These are much dependent on the climate. 

(b) Quarters suitable in northern areas. 

(c) Quarters suitable in areas mild and dry. 

(d) Quarters suitable in areas mild and moist. 

4. Leading Sheep Up to Full Feeding 208 

(a) Why increase should be gradual. 

(b) The foods that are the most suitable. 

(c) The time called for to reach full feeding. 

5. The Fodders that Are Suitable 211 

(a) The wide range of these fodders. 

(b) Relative value in fodders. 

(c) The condition of the fodders. 

(d) How fodders should be fed. 

(e) The amount of fodder consumed. 

6. The Succulence that Is Suitable 213 

(a) The sources of succulence. 

(b) Silage and its place in fattening. 

(c) Roots and their place in fattening. 

(d) How to feed silage and roots in winter. 

(e) Amounts of silage and roots to feed. 

7. The Concentrates that Are Suitable 215 

(a) Concentrates that may be fed. 

(b) Combinations in which to feed them. 

(c) How to feed concentrates. 

(d) The amounts that should be fed. 

(e) General observations relating to feeding. 

8. Self-Feeders and Their Place 221 

(a) What is meant by self-feeding. 

(b) Constructing self-feeders. 

(c) Where self-feeding is admissible. 

(d) Foods fed through self-feeders. 

9. Fattening Sheep on Sugar Beet Pulp 223 

(a) Where such fattening is done. 

(b) The fodder fed with the pulp. 

(c) The grain fed with the pulp. 

(d) Feeding the pulp dry. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XXIU 

Page 

10. Feeding Sheep on Western Ranges 224 

(a) The arrangement of the yards. 

(b) The feeding of the hay. 

(c) The feeding of the grain. 

(d) The furnishing of water. 

11. Fattening Sheep on Screenings 226 

(a) What is meant by screenings. 

(b) When screenings are most commonly fed. 

(c) How screenings are usually fed. 

(d) The future of such feeding. 

12. Fattening Two Lots in Succession 227 

(a) Where this may be feasible. 

(b) The handling of the lirst lot. 

(c) The handling of the second lot. 

(d) The benefits from such feeding. 

13. The Hazard to Breeding Flocks from Fattening 228 

(a) Parasites may be introduced. 

(b) Precautions when introducing the sheep. 

(c) Such fattening not advisable on breeding farms. 

14. All Sheep Should Be Fattened on the Farm 229 

(a) The percentage of loss is less in small lots. 

(b) Roughage is utilized that might otherwise be 

wasted. 

(c) The fertilizer may all be turned to good account. 

(d) Profitable winter work is furnished to the farmer. 

15. The Duration of the Fattening Period 231 

(a) The time required for fattening. 

(b) Fattening for short periods. 

(c) Fattening for longer periods. 

(d) High finish should be the aim. 

16. The Increase from Sheep While Fattening 232 

(a) Conditions that affect increase. 

(b) The normal increase from feeding. 

(c) Where profit comes from in such increase. 

17. Profit from Fattening Sheep in Winter 23;i 

(a) The conditions that affect profit. 

(b) The relative profit from feeding lambs and 

wethers. 

(c) The profit from feeding aged ewes. 

18. General Observation on Fattening 235 

(a) The fattening process outlined. 

(b) Indications of finish in the animals. 

(c) Rations that are most desirable. 

(d) Shrinkage of sheep in shipping. 

(e)- Sheepy flavor in mutton and its cause. 



XXIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XII 



Milk Lambs and How to Obtain, Grow and Market Them 

Page 

1. What Is Meant by a Milk Lamb 238 

(a) The strict meaning of the term. 

(b) The common acceptation of the term. 

(c) Only grown during recent years. 

2. The Essentials in a Milk Lamb 239 

(a) Essentials in regard to growth. 

(b) Essentials in regard to weight. 

(c) Essentials as to the time of marketing. 

3. How TO Obtain Milk Lambs 240 

(a) From a limited number only of the breeds. 

(b) From sheep whose breeding habit has been moditied. 

(c) The sources are as yet limited. 

4. How TO Change the Breeding Habit 241 

(a) Two methods of changing. 

(b) Changing by selection only. 

(c) Changing by breeding and selection. 

(d) The part that food plays in such change. 

5. Experiment at the Minnesota Experiment Station 243 

(a) The foundation stocks chosen. 

(b) The sires used in service. 

(c) The character of the feeding. 

(d) The results that were obtained. 

6. Milk Lambs from Other Than from Dorset Sires 244 

(a) When other sires can be used. 

(b) Which of these are suitable. 

(c) Why the progeny must all be sold. 

7. Where Milk Lambs Should Be Grown 245 

(a) On farms located near shipping stations. 

(b) Where suitable foods can be grown and stored. 

(c) Not too distant from the place of consumption. 

(d) Where the demand will exist for such lambs. 

8. The Quarters Suitable for Milk Lambs 246 

(a) The lambing pens called for northward. 

(b) Feeding in a basement. 

(c) Quarters in milder latitudes. 

9. Care and Food for the Dams 247 

(a) Grading may be necessary. 

(b) The fodders and feeding them. 

(c) The succulence and feeding it. 

(d) The concentrates and feeding them. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XXV 

Pags 

10. Care and Food for the Lambs 249 

(a) The temperature called for. 

(b) The exercise called for. 

(c) The food called for. 

(d) The place for feeding it called for. 

11. Marketing the Lambs ^50 

(a) Aim to secure the market beforehand. 

(b) Fill the orders as promptly as possible. 

(c) Shipping the lambs alive or dead. 

(d) How to dress the lambs for shipping. 

12. Management of the Dams When the Lambs Are Sold — 252 

(a) Reduce the food for a time. 

(b) Give much attention to udders of dams. 

(c) Feed stimulating food before mating. 

13. Disposing of the Dams to Be Sold 253 

(a) Aim to sell soon after the lambs are sold. 

(b) Food for these before selling the lambs. 

(c) Food after selling the lambs. 

14. Growing Milk Lambs Chiefly from Grazing 253 

(a) The chance for this south and west. 

(b) The crops for grazing. 

(c) Management while grazing. 

17. The Room for the Industry 254 

(a) Where it may be easily overdone. 

(b) The factors that develop consumption. 

(c) The industry in mild latitudes. 



CHAPTER Xni 
Growing and Fitting Sheep for Exhibition 

The Sources from Which Pure Breds Are Obtained 256 

(a) To some extent they are grown upon the farm. 

(b) To a greater extent they are obtained by purchase. 

(c) The characteristics to be sought. 

The Sources from Which Grades and Cross Breds Are 

Obtained 257 

(a) They are grown much more frequently than pure 

breds. 

(b) How to get them when thus grown by the ex- 

hibitor. 

(c) The leading essentials as to form. 

(d) Relative popularity of the various grades. 

(e) Why more than the number called for should be 

bred. 



XXVI TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

3. The Quarters for the Ewes, Lambs and Wethers 260 

(a) The quarters for the dams while nursing their 

young. 

(b) The quarters for the lambs while nursing. 

(c) The quarters for the lambs subsequently. 

(d) The quarters suitable for wethers. 

4. Food for Dams While Nursing in the Sheds 261 

(a) The fodders and feeding them. 

(b) The succulence and feeding it. 

(c) The concentrates and feeding them. 

5. Feeding and Caring for the Lambs Until Weaned 262 

(a) The value of a nurse ewe when obtainable. 

(b) Supplemental milk from cows. 

(c) The succulence fed and feeding it. 

(d) Prompt attention to castration. 

(e) The fodders fed and feeding them. 

6. Grazing for the Dams Before the Time of Weaning 265 

(a) Any grazing palatable and nutritious will answer. 

(b) Succession in suitable grazing. 

(c) Soiling foods in lieu of grazing. 

(d) Concentrates for dams and lambs while grazing. 

7. The Lambs Subsequently to the Weaning Season 266 

(a) The fodders given until the fair season. 

(b) The grazing that is admissible. 

(c) The green food supplementary. 

(d) The most suitable concentrates. 

8. Trimming the Wool for the Fairs 267 

(a) The nature of the trimming. 

(b) The advantage of such trimming. 

(c) How the trimming is done. 

(d) The extent of the trimming. 

(e) Peculiarities in the fleeces of sheep. 

9. Washing and Smearing Sheep for the Shows 269 

(a) The breeds that are washed. 

(b) How the washing may be done 

(c) The breeds that are smeared. 

(d) The breeds neither washed nor smeared. 

(e) Dipping show sheep. 

10. Special Treatment for Merino Sheep 271 

(a) The feeding essentially the same as for other sheep. 

(b) The condition of wool sought. 

(c) The confinement that is sufficient. 

(d) The blanketing that is called for. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XXVll 

Page 

11. Show Sheep in Transit to the Fairs 272 

(a) Preparations for the fair circuit. 

(b) Preparing the sheep for shipment. 

(c) Food and care while in transit. 

(d) Food and care while at the fairs. 

12. Management Subsequently to the Fair Season 274 

(a) Lambs to be shown as shearing wethers. 

(b) Breeding rams to be shown again. 

(c) Breeding ewes to be shown again. 

13. The Exercise th.\t Is Required 276 

(a) Yards may furnish exercise for sheep in fat classes. 

(b) Pastures are greatly advantageous to breeding 

sheep. 

(c) Distant pastures may involve too much loss of 

time. 

14. Excessive Fatness to Be Avoided 277 

(a) The degree of the fatness to be sought. 

(b) The indication of over-finish. 

(c) When finish is excessive. 

15. The Age to Which Sheep May Be Shown 279 

(a) They are seldom shown beyond the age of 3 years. 

(b) The best age for showing sheep. 

(c) The influence of showing on the breeding qualities. 

16. Miscellaneous Observations on Showing Sheep 280 

(a) Terms used when showing sheep. 

(b) Shearing show sheep. 

(c) Troughs for feeding show sheep. 

(d) Trimming the feet of show sheep. 

(e) Showing sheep at the bloom stage. 

(f) Sheep before the judge. 

(g) Determining the ages of show sheep, 
(h) Services required from show rams, 
(i) Ewe lambs at the fairs. 

(j) How blankets are made. 



CHAPTER XIV 
Washing and Shearing Sheep 

Washing Sheep Before Shearing 286 

(a) Arguments that favor washing before shearing. 

(b) Arguments that favor shearing without washing. 

(c) The change in practice during recent years. 



XXVIU TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

2. When Sheep Should and Should Not Be Washed 289 

(a) When wool is manufactured at home it should be 

washed. 

(b) When certain breeds are shown they should first be 

washed. 

(c) When washing should be done. 

3. The Different Methods of Washing 291 

(a) Washing sheep in a box or tank. 

(b) Washing sheep in a brook, pond or lake. 

(c) Washing beneath an artificial waterfall. 

4. Handling Sheep When Washing or Shearing Them 2'J3 

(a) The necessity for gentle handling. 

(b) How to catch, hold and lead sheep. 

(c) Handling sheep in the water. 

5. Tagging Sheep When Washed 296 

(a) What is meant by tagging. 

(b) When tagging should be done. 

(c) The disposition of the tags. 

6. Sheep Between Washing and Shearing 297 

(a) The time covered by the interval. 

(b) The object in thus waiting. 

(c) Where grazed at such a time. 

7. The Time and Place for Shearing 298 

(a) Influences that bear upon the time of shearing. 

(b) When the ordinary flock should be shorn. 

(c) Shearing sheep that are being fattened. 

(d) Shearing sheep twice a year. 

(e) Where sheep may be shorn. 

8. Methods of Shearing Sheep 300 

(a) Methods of shearing by hand. 

(b) Shearing by machinery. 

(c) Stubble shearing of sheep. 

9. Handling the Shorn Wool ' 305 

(a) Trimming, folding and tying the fleece. 

(b) Packing the wool when shorn. 

(c) Marketing the wool. 

10. Trimming the Feet of Sheep 307 

(a) Why trimming the feet is necessary. 

(b) When the feet should be trimmed. 

(c) How the feet should be trimmed. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS Xxix 

CHAPTER XV 
Providing Sheep with Water and Salt 

Page 

1. Sheep With and Without Water 309 

(a) The erroneous view as to the need of sheep for 

water. 

(b) When sheep may not need water in summer. 

(c) When sheep may not need water in winter. 

2. Providing Water for Sheep in Summer 311 

(a) The sources from which water is obtainable. 

(b) Water obtained from streams. 

(c) Water obtained from wells. 

(d) Water obtained from ponds. 

(e) Proximity of water to the grazing grounds. 

3. Providing Water for Sheep in Winter 312 

(a) Why brooks and ponds do not supply the need. 

(b) Water from wells or cisterns. 

(c) Water for all classes of sheep. 

(d) Water for ewes nursing lambs. 

(e) Water for sheep being fattened. 

(f) Making water accessible to sheep. 

4. Water and Good Health in Sheep 314 

(a) The relation between these is intimate. 

(b) Water furnished by ponds. 

(c) Water from marshes. 

(d) Water contaminated by yard seepage. 

.■5. The Necessity for Feeding Salt 315 

(a) Sheep inherently crave salt. 

(b) The mission of salt in the animal economy. 

(c) When feeding salt may not be necessary. 

(d) Why salt should always be accessible. 

6. Supplying Sheep with Salt in Summer 316 

(a) How to make salt accessible. 

(b) The objection to feeding it at intervals. 

(c) Specially necessary when pastures are over succu- 

lent. 

7. Supplying Sheep with Salt in Winter 318 

(a) How to make it accessible. 

(b) The objections to adding it to the food. 

(c) More salt wanted with succulent food. 



XXX TABLE OK CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XVI 
Shelter for Sheep Summer and Winter 

Page 

1. The Shelter Called for in Winter 319 

(a) Protection from falling storms. 

(b) Protection from winds. 

(c) Protection from dampness. 

(d) They do not suffer readily. 

2. The Shelter Called for in Summer ?,-2l 

(a) Protection from cold rains. 

(b) Protection from excessive sunshine. 

(c) Protection from flies. 

3. Considerations in Locating a Sheep Shed 323 

(a) Aim to locate on ground dry and porous. 

(b) Aim to secure protection on the windward side. 

(c) Aim to secure ample room for yards and paddocks. 

4. Shelter that Is Not Costly 324 

(a) A shed of poles covered with straw or hay. 

(b) A shed with walls of baled straw. 

(c) A one-story shed with walls of logs or sods. 

5. The More Essential Features of a Permanent Sheep 

House 226 

(a) A building oblong in shape and not too wide. 

(b) A structure of two stories. 

(c) Facilities for convenient feeding. 

(d) Divisions in the lower story. 

(e) Warm lambing pens. 

(f) Facilities for watering. 

(g) Sunlight, yard room and paddocks, 
(h) Ventilation without drafts. 

6. A Building Oblong and Not Too Wide 328 

(a) The benefits from this form of structure. 

(b) The addition of suitable extensions. 

(c) Locating the feed passage in the same. 

7. A Structure of Two Stories 330 

(a) It is economical in construction. 

(b) It has much storage capacity for food. 

(c) When the lower story may be a basement. 

8. Facilities for Convenient Feeding 332 

(a) Feed racks and locating them. 

(b) A feed room and locating it. 

(c) A root cellar and locating it. 

(d) A silo and locating it. 

(e) Feeding hay and furnishing litter. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXI 

I'age 

9. Divisions in the Lower Story 335 

(a) Why such divisions are necessary. 

(b) The number of the divisions called for. 

(c) Movable partitions betw^een the divisions. 

10. Warm L.a.mbing Pens 336 

(a) The location of the lambing pen. 

(b) How to secure sufficient warmth. 

(c) The furnishings of the lambing pen. 

11. Facilities for Watering 336 

(a) How water may be supplied. 

(b) Why tubs or buckets are suitable. 

(c) Why troughs exposed are unsuitable. 

12. Sunlight, Yardroom and Paddocks 337 

(a) Where sunlight is specially important. 

(b) The location and size of the yard. 

(c) The location and size of the paddocks. 

13. Ventil.\tion without Drafts 339 

(a) When ventilation is a necessity. 

(b) When artificial ventilation may not be needed. 

(c) How ventilation may be secured. 

14. Plans of Sheep Houses 341 

(a) For an ordinary farm flock. 

(b) For a large farm flock. 

(c) For a large breeding flock. 



CHAPTER XVII 
The Disposal and Marketing of Sheep 

The Culling of the Flock 350 

(a) The time for such culling. 

(b) The nature of the culling. 

(c) The extent of the culling. 

The Disposal of the Culls 352 

(a) On the ranges they must be sold. 

(b) On the arable farm they may be fattened. 

(c) Culls are usually undesirable for feeders. 

(d) Culls may be used with profit at home. 

(e) The slaughtering of sheep at home. 

The Disposal of Pure Bred Sheep and Lambs 353 

(a) More commonly they are sold by private sale. 

(b) Filling orders by mail. 

(c) Disposal through public sales. 



XXXn TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

4. Fitting Sheep for Sale 355 

(a) They should possess good flesh and bloom. 

(b) They should be measurably trimmed. 

(c) They should be carefully graded when sold in lots. 

5. The Disposal of Grade Sheep and Lambs 35G 

(a) On the farm they are usually sold as lambs. 

(b) On the range they are sold as lambs or wethers. 

(c) Lambs furnishing meat for the home. 

6. Determining the Age of the Sheep 357 

(a) Indications furnished by the teeth. 

(b) Other indications of age. 

(c) Variations in indications. 

7. Preparing Sheep for Shipping 359 

(a) Sheep that are shipped from the ranges. 

(b) Sheep that are shipped from farm pastures. 

(c) Sheep that are shipped from the feed yards. 

8. Shipping Stockers from the Ranges 361 

(a) The number that one car can carry. 

(b) Grading before shipping. 

(c) Better not unloaded in transit. 

9. Shipping Finished Sheep in Carlots 363 

(a) Securing cars for shipment. 

(b) The number that one car will carry. 

(c) Disposal at the stockyards. 

10. Shipping Finished Sheep in Trainloads 364 

(a) An unloading point near the market. 

(b) When the sheep should reach it. 

(c) How the sheep are handled subsequently. 



CHAPTER XVni 
Protecting Sheep From Dogs and Wolves 

1. How Dogs and Wolves Affect Sheep Husbandry 366 

(a) The losses from both sources are enormous. 

(b) The greatest loss is the effect upon the industry. 

(c) The loss from dogs is greater than from wolves 

(d) That it is so is a blot upon our civilization. 

2. How Dogs Worry Sheep 368 

(a) They more frequently attack them at night. 

(b) The usual mode of attack. 

(c) The power of the dogs to worry. 

(d) To detect the dogs is almost impossible. 

(e) Losses additional to sheep killed or maimed. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXlll 

Page 

3. Protection by Legislative Enactment 369 

(a) This has usually proved inadequate. 

(b) The owners of dogs the more numerous. 

(c) The influence of the sporting element. 

4. Legislation that Will Protect from Dogs 370 

(a) Taxing dogs to reimburse for losses. 

(b) What experience has shown with reference thereto. 

5. Protective Measures on the Farm 371 

(a) Protection furnished by bells and goats. 

(b) Protection furnished by corrals. 

(c) Protection furnished by fences. 

(d) Protection through the medium of firearms. 

(e) Protection by means of poison. 

6. Why Sheep Do Better When Not Corralled 373 

(a) They travel only to secure food. 

(b) They are less liable to contract disease. 

(c) They can pasture more in the cool of the day. 

7. The Dog Industry in the United States 376 

(a) The number of the dogs kept. 

(b) The cost of keeping a dog. 

(c) The enormity of the waste incurred. 

8. The Place for the Dog in Sheep Husbandry 377 

(a) Under range conditions indispensable. 

(b) In unfenced arable areas essential. 

(c) The wonderful fidelity of shepherd dogs. 

9. The Losses Incurred by the Wolves 378 

(a) Where these losses are most serious. 

(b) The two classes of wolves. 

(c) The way in which they destroy. 

10. Protective Measures Against Wolves 381 

(a) Protection furnished by numerous bells. 

(b) Protection furnished by trapping. 

(c) Protection furnished through poisoning, 
fd) Protection furnished through state bounties. 

[e) Protection furnished by hunting. 

(f) Protection furnished by fences. 



^; 



CHAPTER XIX 

The More Common Ailments of Sheep 

Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Sheep 385 

(a) Treatment less satisfactory with sheep than other 
stock. 



XXXIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

Prevention and Treatment of Disease — Continued 

(b) The importance of preventive measures. 

(c) Proper environment for and care of sheep. 

2. Parasites that Prey Externally on Sheep 387 

(a) The sheep tick and its life history. 

(b) The scab mite and its hfe history. 

(c) The sheep louse and its history. 

3. Parasites that Prey Internally on Sheep 391 

(a) The stomach worm and treatment. 

(b) The tape worm and treatment. 

(c) The lung worm and treatment. 

(d) Nodule disease and treatment. 

(e) Grub in the head and treatment. 

4. Ailments from Digestive Sources 404 

(a) Bloat and treatment. 

(b) Overtaxed digestion and treatment. 

(c) Diarrhea and treatment. 

(d) Colic and treatment. 

(e) Stretches and treatment. 

5. Ailments Affecting the Organs of Respiration 41('. 

(a) Catarrh and treatment. 

(b) Bronchitis and treatment. 

(c) Pneumonia and treatment. 

(d) Pleurisy and treatment. 

6. Ailments Arising from Reproduction 412 

(a) Abortion and treatment. 

(b) Retention of the afterbirth and treatment. 

(c) Inversion of the womb and treatment. 

7. Ailments that Affect the Limbs 414 

(a) Common foot rot and treatment. 

(b) Contagious foot rot and treatment. 

(c) Broken limbs and treatment. 

8. Ailments Peculiar to Lambs 417 

(a) Indigestion and treatment. 

(b) White scours and treatment. 

(c) Retention of excrement and treatment. 

(d) Wool balls and treatment. 

(e) Navel disease and treatment. 

9. Ailments Miscellaneous in Character 418 

(a) Goiter and treatment. 

(b) Ophthalmia and treatment. 

(c) Tumors and treatment. 

(d) Urinary troubles and treatment. 

(e) Garget and treatment. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXV 

CHAPTER XX 
Dipping Sheep for Ticks and Scabs 

Page 

1. The Objects Sought from Dipping Sheep 4ai 

(a) The removal of external parasites. 

(b) Improving the condition of the skin. 

(c) Increasing growth in the wool. 

2. The Two Classes of Sheep Dips 422 

(a) Those that are proprietary. 

(b) Those that are non-proprietary. 

(c) Considerations when choosing between them. 

3. The Basic Element in Sheep Dips 425 

(a) Those with arsenic as the basic element. 

(b) Those with carbolic acid as the basic element. 

(c) Those with tobacco as the basic element. 

(d) Those with lime and sulphur as the basic element. 

4. The Dipping Plant 431 

(a) For a large flock. 

(b) For an ordinary farm flock. 

(c) For a few animals. 

5. The Season for Dipping 436 

(a) It may be done at nearly all seasons. 

(b) The best seasons for dipping. 

(c) The frequency of the dipping. 

6. Facts that Bear Upon the Work of Dipping 438 

(a) The amounts of the dip called for. 

(b) Renewing the supply when dipping sheep. 

(c) The time that sheep should remain in the dip. 

(d) Particulars that apply to dipping for scab. 

(e) The necessity for gentle handling. 

7. Care of the Animals Subsequently to Dipping 440 

(a) The aim should be to change their quarters. 

(b) When disinfecting former quarters is necessary. 

(c) How disinfection is secured. 

8. Removing Parasites by Other Methods 441 

(a) By pouring liquids from a vessel. 

(b) By applying unguents. 

(c) By feeding sulphur. 

9. How Far Dipping Is a Necessity 443 

(a) When removing ticks and scabs. 

(b) When cleansing the skin. 

(c) How to render it unnecessary. 



XXXVl TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XXI 
Establishing a Flock and Improving It 

Page 

1. Important Considerations When Establishing a Flock__ 445 

(a) The consideration of environment. 

(b) The consideration of proximity to market. 

(c) The consideration of food supplies. 

2. Establishing a Pure-Bred Flock 447 

(a) Who may engage in the work. 

(b) Determining the choice of breed. 

(c) The character of the foundation animals. 

(d) The sources from which they may be obtained. 

3. Establishing a Flock of Grades 431 

(a) The essentials as to form in the females. 

(b) Blood elements in the same. 

(c) The sources from which they may be obtained. 

4. The Sires Used in Grade Flocks 452 

(a) They should always be purely bred. 

(b) The factors that determine choice in breed. 

(c) The character of the rams. 

5. The Impkovement of the Flock 455 

(a) The three factors in improvement. 

(b) The part played by the sires. 

(c) What is accomplished by selection. 

(d) What may be due to food. 

6. Improvement Through the Sires 457 

(a) Why successive sires from the same breed should 

be chosen. 

(b) The time called for to reach high development. 

(c) The Minnesota station experiment. 

(d) To what extent in-breeding may be practiced. 

7. Improvement Through Selection 450 

(a) Discard inferior females before they are bred. 

(b) Ewes that should be discarded at the weaning sea- 

son. 

(c) The necessity for rejecting some will always exist. 

S. Improvement Through Food 4()l 

(a) Food adapted to the needs of the sheep. 

(b) Food adapted to the needs of the breed. 

(c) Food adapted to the requirements of the breeding. 

9. When Crossing Is Legitimate 402 

(a) When pure breeds may be crossed. 

(b) Making more than one cross. 

(c) Introducing an out cross. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXVU 

Pag« 

10. Breeding for Single or Twin Lambs 464 

(a) When to breed for one or the other. 

(b) The part that breeding plays in such production 

(c) The part that food plays in such production. 

11. Much Should Be Left to the Good Shepherd 466 

(a) His knowledge of the flock is most intimate. 

(b) Usually he is a good judge of sheep. 

(c) He may also be a good salesman. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Wg. Page 

1. Panel of Movable Fence and Headpiece 21 

2. Southdowns Noted as Mutton Producers 34 

3. Yearling Rambouillets Grown for Wool and Mutton 36 

4. Wool as Classified on the Sheep 70 

5. The Shorn Fleece as Frequently Classified 72 

6. Feeding Rack for Lambs 115 

7. Shropshires on Iowa Agricultural College Farm 140 

8. A Noted Prize- Winning Yearling Shropshire Ram 156 

9. A Noted Prize- Winning Yearling Oxford Down Ram 159 

10. Shropshires on Summer Grazing 165 

:!1. Fattening Sheep in the Willamette Valley, Oregon 220 

?2. Typical Dorset Horn Ram 240 

13. Iowa College Lambs in Charge of Keepers 258 

14. Shearing Sheep by Machinery in Montana 302 

15. Plan of Convenient Sheep Rack 330 

16. Ground Plan of Sheep Barn 342 

17. Ground Plan of Barn with Yard Protection 344 

18. Ground Plan of Barn at Minnesota Experiment Station 346 

19. Sheep Barn at Minnesota Experiment Station 348 

20. Loading Sheep for Shipment at Columbus, Montana 360 

21. Ground Plan of Dipping Plant 434 

22. Dipping Vat for a Small Flock 435 

23. Southdown Sheep 456 



xxxlx 



CHAPTER I 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 

In discussing the influence which sheep exert on soil 
fertility, the following points will be considered : (i) Why 
the sheep has a golden hoof; (2) What sheep remove 
from the soil; (3) Why the droppings of sheep are val- 
uable ; (4) Fertilizing poor land quickly at low cost ; 
(5) Sheep and fertility in paddocks; (6) Sheep and fer- 
tilizer for gardeners; and (7) How sheep manure may 
lose its fertility. 

Sheep and the golden hoof — There are good reasons 
for believing that long ages ago the statement had con- 
gealed into a proverb, that "the sheep has a golden hoof." 
The originator of the saying and the date of its origin 
can never be known now. These have been lost amid the 
dimness of a distant past. There is not much doubt, how- 
ever, as to why sheep came to be so characterized. Un- 
questionably they were so designated primarily because 
of the favorable influence which they exerted on the fer- 
tility of soil on which they grazed. But it would be cor- 
rect to speak of them also because of the service which 
they render in destroying the many forms of weed life, 
and because of the dual returns which they give of meat 
and milk every season. 

That sheep do add materially to the enrichment of 
the soils on which they graze cannot be questioned, since 
it is a fact of general observation. Wherever sheep graze 
on pastures they grow richer and more productive rather 
than poorer and less productive, when grazed under 
proper conditions. It is possible to graze pastures so 
closely with sheep that the grasses may fail. This some- 
times happens on the far western ranges where the 
grasses have to fight for life because of the lack of mois- 



2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ture. But when such decrease follows in the yields of the 
grasses it is not owing to any decrease in fertility, as may 
be shown by increase in the returns from pastures prop- 
erly grazed in the same areas. When pastures are broken 
up that are grazed by sheep, the growth is more vigorous 
than on grass pastures beside them of similar age and 
similarly broken but that have not been so grazed. Even 
when sheep graze amid the stubbles after grain has been 
harvested, the favorable influence on the crops that follow 
is frequently distinctly traceable. How sheep increase 
the fertility of the land when they remove fertility in the 
form of flesh, bones and wool is explained below. 

Sheep are the inveterate foes of weed life in 
nearly all of its forms. The weeds that sheep will not 
consume upon the farm are few indeed, providing they 
can have access to them while the weeds are young. 
When tender and succulent, they will consume many 
weeds in preference to grass. Almost the only class of 
weeds that they will not eat when young are those that 
are furnished with spines, as in the case of the thistle. 
When weeds become woody, they will not consume the 
stems unless under the constraint of hunger, but they will 
in nearly all instances consume the seeds. The excep- 
tions are seeds encased in pods that are furnished with a 
defense in the form of prickles, as in the case of the 
cocklebur and the burdock. It would be very interesting 
to know the number of the weeds that a sheep consumes 
in a day, in a year, or in a lifetime when given timely 
access to the weeds. Sheep will also crop down the young 
sprouts that spring up around the stumps of trees that 
have been cut down, and in this way they hasten decay 
in the stumps. 

Sheep give a dual return annually. They give a re- 
turn in lambs and also in wool. This is true at least of 
the females that have reached the age for breeding. Other 
meat-making animals give a return in meat, except in the 
case of the dairy cow. This capacity to give a dual return 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 3 

goes far toward giving the sheep a foremost place among 
live stock on the farm in the profits which they give to the 
owner. It has been claimed that under many conditions, 
the fleece furnished annually by the sheep will pay the 
cost of food and care for the entire year. In some in- 
stances it will do more than this, thus leaving the value 
of the lamb or lambs produced, less the food it has eaten, 
as the net profit. But that is not all the profit, as will 
now be shown. 

When reckoning the profit from keeping sheep, it is 
legitimate, of course, to include the influence which they 
exercise on fertility and in checking the growth of nox- 
ious forms of weed life. These influences are, in a sense, 
intangible. It is impossible to put a money value upon 
them, since no rules have been formulated for estimating 
exactly the value of these influences, nor is it possible to 
formulate them because of their intangible character. 
Both, however, are material, and, especially on the arable 
farm, they add greatly to the profits from keeping sheep. 
That sheep are more profitable, as a rule, than any other 
quadruped kept on the arable farm in proportion to the 
investment and the labor involved, is the almost universal 
testimony of those who have kept the different classes of 
these upon the farm. 

Fertility removed by sheep — The amount of fertility 
removed by sheep is relatively small. They only remove 
virtually what is transformed into flesh, bone and wool. 
In flesh and wool the nitrogenous element predominates, 
and this when removed can be much more easily replaced 
on the arable farm than phosphoric acid and potash. The 
most serious loss is that of phosphorus, since that cannot 
be so easily replaced as the supply of nitrogen, and the 
supply of potash in the soil is usually relatively more 
abundant than that of potash. Sheep remove less of fer- 
tility from the farm than other domestic quadrupeds, for 
the reason that the droppings fall more constantly on 



4 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

the pastures, and for the further reason that the waste 
from the droppings is much less, as is shown below. 

Notwithstanding the fertility removed by sheep from 
the soil in the ways just mentioned, the amount of avail- 
able fertility in lands where sheep are grazed is increased 
How, it may be asked, is this possible when all the food 
which they consume comes from the soil, and a part of it 
is taken away in the flesh, bone and wool sold ? There is 
also some loss of fertility from the droppings through 
washing. The loss in the droppings from the latter 
source is usually slight, especially when the sheep are on 
the pastures. The loss of fertility from other sources 
named is evidently more than made up through fertility 
brought up from the subsoil and made available near the 
surface. The roots of all plants feed more deeply than is 
usually supposed, including those of many of the grasses. 
This will be at once apparent to those who observe the 
length of the roots and rootlets suspended from grass 
crowns underneath which the earth has been washed 
away on the side of a cliff or ravine. They went far 
down into the subsoil before they were thus laid bare. 
In doing so they gathered food in the subsoil to support 
growth above the surface. The elements of plant growth 
in the subsoil are thus being gradually transformed from 
inert to available forms in the subsoil, and when thus 
transformed are sent upward to maintain leaf and stem 
growth. These, in time, when consumed by sheep are 
left upon the surface soil for its enrichment. The fertility 
thus carried from the subsoil to the surface must be more 
than the amount removed in the carcass and the wool of 
the sheep grazed on the pastures, otherwise the fertility 
of .the lands thus grazed would not be increased. 

That lands grazed by sheep do increase in available 
fertility cannot be gainsaid. The fact has been so fre- 
quently observed that it cannot be questioned. Sheep 
have grazed upon the Cheviot Hills for generations, and 
on grasses unstimulated by the addition of fertilizers from 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 5 

outside sources, and yet the pastures on these hills are 
more rather than less abundant than they were decades 
ago. This fact finds demonstration in the comparison of 
the carrying power of the grasses. Since lands that are 
judiciously grazed by sheep from year to year become 
richer, the question naturally arises as to what will be the 
limit of the enriching process, or as to whether it has any 
limit. The answer to both questions will depend upon 
the amount of plant food available and inert in the strata 
of soil and subsoil in which the plants feed. It will be 
observed that the increase in fertility through such graz- 
ing, at least where legumes are absent, comes through 
transformation of fertility. Such transformation relates 
first to change in form, and second, to change in place. 
Now, if the supply of these nutrients is sufiicient for 
indefinite use, there will be similar increase in fertility in 
the lands thus grazed. If, on the other hand, the supply 
is insufficient for such use indefinitely, then a time would 
come when the power of such lands to carry sheep would 
grow less, unless aided from some outside source. Hap- 
pily, the supply of inert plant food materials in the soil 
is sufficient to sustain plant growth indefinitely, in some 
forms at least, otherwise the prairies could not have main- 
tained for long centuries in undiminished volume the 
grasses that grow upon them. 

Sheep manure valuable — The droppings of sheep are 
valuable, first, because of the chemical constituents ; sec- 
ond, because of the readily available condition ; third, be- 
cause of the even way in which they are distributed on 
the soil ; and fourth, because they are distributed where 
most needed. In all of these respects it would probably 
be correct to say that the droppings of sheep are more 
valuable than the droppings of any other class of quadru- 
peds kept upon the farm. This is certainly true when 
these influences are considered together. 

The analyses of the fertilizer obtained from the differ- 
ent classes of domestic animals will, of course, vary with 



6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

the food fed. For this and other reasons it would be 
only possible to state approximately the relative value of 
these. Roberts has given much thought to this question 
and his investigations have led him to conclude that the 
average value of a ton of farm manures from horses, cows, 
sheep and swine ranks as follows : 

Horses $2.49 

Cows 2.43 

Sheep 4.25 

Swine 3.20 

In this estimate the nitrogen in the manure is rated 
at 15 cents a pound, the phosphoric acid at 7 cents and the 
potash at 4j^ cents. The superior value of sheep manure 
is thus clearly apparent from the standpoint of chemical 
analysis. Add to this the other points of superiority, and 
the showing is very pronounced in favor of sheep manure. 

The readily available condition in which the drop- 
pings of sheep are found adds greatly to their value. 
When they fall on the soil it is usually in the form of 
detached particles. These come in close contact with the 
soil. The first shower which falls upon them carrie-.? 
down more or less of the manurial constituents into th(; 
soil. This is all the more readily accomplished because of 
the finer and more thorough grinding which sheep give 
to their food than other domestic quadrupeds. The drop- 
pings of other animals fall in masses, hence much of their 
bulk does not come in close contact with the soil. The 
loss from these, therefore, by washing and leaching is 
much greater than from the droppings of sheep. It is 
also much greater from oxidation and from pests that 
prey upon them. 

As the droppings of horses and cattle fall in masses, 
they destroy vegetation beneath them, and they overfer- 
tilize the ground for a short distance around, and there 
is also waste from the causes named. But the droppings 
of sheep scatter when they fall. Sheep travel much when 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 7 

they graze, and because they do they distribute their 
droppings much more evenly over the entire area grazed 
than other classes of stock. Because of this, it would 
probably be correct to say that sheep v^hile grazing will 
distribute manure about as efifectively and as evenly as 
though it had been distributed by a manure spreader. 
This adds greatly to the value of the manure, since the 
cost of drawing and distributing farmyard manure is 
relatively high, sometimes so high as to make its use 
prohibitory when it has to be drawn far. 

The droppings are also distributed by sheep where 
they are most needed. Sheep instinctively seek the 
higher ground when they are at rest. Because of this, 
the proportion of the droppings left on these is usually 
much greater than that left on the lower lands. The lat- 
ter are usually much less in need of fertility than the 
former, hence the distribution thus effected fertilizes most 
the land that is most in need of fertilization. 

Sheep and quick fertilization — Lands low in fertility 
may be quickly fertilized by grazing sheep on them un- 
der certain conditions of management. The grazing will 
in itself add to the available fertility, even though the 
food eaten should be only grass. It will add more quickly 
to the available fertility if the land is plowed and some 
crop is sown on it to provide grazing. The more fre- 
quently such crops are sown, the more will be the increase 
in the available fertility, even in the absence of applied 
fertilizers, hence the wisdom in trying to grow more than 
one crop on such land each season. 

Whether the grazing is furnished by grasses or 
grains, the fertilizing may be much hastened by feeding 
concentrates to the sheep thus grazed. This may some- 
times be done with profit when grazing sheep are suckling 
their lambs. It may usually be done with profit when 
grazing sheep that are being fattened. The fertilization 
thus added is proportionate to the richness in manurial 
elements of the foods and to the amount of the same. 



8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

The fertilization may be hastened by the judicious 
use of commercial fertilizers. When these are applied in 
addition to the concentrates fed, the increase in fertility 
will be proportionate under normal conditions. When 
these influences act in conjunction, the fertilization is 
rapid, and it is virtually without waste, especially when 
grass pastures are thus grazed. As the grasses that 
cover the soil almost entirely prevent waste in the fer- 
tilizer applied, there is not only increase in the top 
growth from the application of the fertilizer, but there 
is proportionate increase in the root growth, a fact of 
much significance when the pastures are broken, be- 
cause of the extent to which root growth adds fertility 
to the soil. There is probably no method that will im- 
prove worn lands more quickly and more cheaply with 
reference to fertilization and also to their mechanical con- 
dition. 

Such a method of fertilizing arable lands distant 
from the farmsteading is entirely practicable, and it is 
eminently satisfactory. It would be too costly to ferti- 
lize them by applying farmyard manure, because of the 
cost of labor involved. Fertilization through commercial 
fertilizers would be slower and less satisfactory, \\nien 
practiced as outlined, it should be safe, relatively, cheap 
and eminently satisfactory. 

Sheep and fertility in paddocks — A sheep paddock, as 
is generally known, is a small inclosure located near the 
farmsteading. more roomy than a yard and much less so 
than a field. It is, in a way. an indispensable adjunct of the 
arable farm. It furnishes in summer grazing grounds for 
temporary use or for the more permanent occupancy of 
rams or of other animals that may be in the process of 
fitting for shows. It may also in some instances be de- 
voted to the growing of soiling foods or of pastures other 
than grasses. When used, as they sometimes are in win- 
ter, as yards for feeding certain fodders, the soil becomes 
very rich, and in consequence it becomes well fitted for 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 9 

the kinds of production just referred to. When soiling 
food is grown for sheep, it is greatly important, as a 
matter of economy in labor, that it shall be grown near 
at hand to where it is to be fed. The feeding of such 
foods to sheep is usually limited to the needs of those 
that are being fitted for the shows, hence a limited area 
such as a paddock furnishes will usually suffice for such a 
use. Paddocks, because of the richness of the soil 
through the droppings of the sheep, and because of their 
proximity to the sheds, have pre-eminent adaptation for 
the growing of such foods. 

In the winter or after the ground has become frozen, 
certain fodders are sometimes fed in one or more of these 
paddocks. They are simply strewn over the ground from 
day to day, and the place of strewing is changed daily. 
They are thus fed, in part, as a matter of convenience, 
and also in some instances to encourage the sheep to 
take exercise while picking them over. Corn and sor- 
ghum fodders are frequently fed thus. When so fed, un- 
less when they are present in excessive quantities, the 
most convenient way to get rid of them is to bury them 
with the plow. In this way the removing of a product 
that is difficult to handle is obviated, and the soil becomes 
filled with humus imbedded in the rich covering of fer- 
tility that encircles it. When the seed of soiling crops is 
sown on such land, the growth is usually of a most vig- 
orous kind. 

The occasional plowing of paddocks has the further ad- 
vantage that it renders them much less liable to harbor 
disease in certain forms. It is thought, and with much 
countenance of support, that the hazard to sheep from 
grazing in paddocks is much reduced when the soil is 
frequently turned over with the plow. It has been thought 
that the germs of such ailments as tapeworm and stom- 
ach worm are sometimes taken into the stomachs of 
lambs by grazing on the vegetation of paddocks that have 
not recently been plowed. 



lO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Sheep and fertilizer for gardeners — As is well known, 
gardeners require a large amount of fertilizers. In some 
instances they have found that they can obtain it more 
cheaply by feeding sheep in winter than in any other way. 
It may be ; in fact, it usually is, that both the food and the 
sheep are purchased. In the fattening process large 
quantities of the fertilizer are made and so near to the 
place of application that, when all things are taken into 
account, it is much more profitable to obtain it thus than 
by purchase in the adjacent towns or cities. 

Some localities are much better adapted to such feed- 
ing than others. Where it is to be markedly successful, 
the sheep must be obtainable at reasonable prices, and 
they should be brought to the farm without incurring 
undue outlay, as the price of transportation. Suitable 
food must be obtainable without excessive cost. The in- 
dividual who feeds should have a thorough knowledge of 
his business. When the animals so fed are marketed, it 
should be with the best judgment. Thus handled, there 
should be some profit on the sheep in addition to the fer- 
tilizer. 

The profit, as in all fattening, may not come from the 
increase made in weight during the fattening process, but 
from increase in the weight of the animal when the fat- 
tening process began. The person who must purchase 
all his food will make less profit as a rule than the individ- 
ual who grows at least a part of it. But, in any event, 
safe buying and selling of the sheep and careful, judicious 
purchasing and feeding of the foods should result in some 
cash profit from the venture ; thus furnishing the manure 
without other cost than that involved in applying it. This 
to the gardener should prove a great boon, as the fer- 
tilizer thus furnished would add greatly to the efficacy of 
the action of commercial fertilizers when these also are 
used. 

Fertilizer from sheep is in some instances made in 
very large quantities in feeding centers where sheep are 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY II 

fed in a large way. Very much of what has been thus 
made in the past has been wasted, owing to the cost of 
carrying it to farms and gardens where it is needed. 
Much of the precious substance, in the far West especially, 
has been drawn out in trainloads and dumped into 
ravines as the best way of disposing of it. The fertilizer 
thus made is rich in the elements of fertility, as in making 
it the sheep are fed chiefly on concentrated food. Much 
of the grain thus fed is given as screenings, especially in 
the West, and as these are fed in the unground form, the 
manure contains many weed seeds, the vitality of which 
has not been destroyed. These have not been consumed 
by the sheep, but have been dropped by them while tak- 
ing their food. Their presence makes it so far undesir- 
able for gardeners. 

Fertilizer is sometimes obtained from the western 
ranges where sheep have been corralled and wintered for 
successive years. This product is sometimes known as 
sheep guano. It contains much plant food, relatively, as 
it has lost but little in manurial constituents through 
leaching, and it is almost devoid of admixture of such sub- 
stances as litter and earth. In some instances these ac- 
cumulations have assumed large proportions, but they 
have frequently become much deteriorated through age. 
Notwithstanding they have been shipped more or less 
freely to the East, where they have been used by garden- 
ers, more especially by those engaged in growing products 
of the greenhouse. The cost of transportation has 
proved restrictive to the trade. 

How sheep manure takes harm — Sheep manure, like 
that from other animals, may be injured by leaching, as in 
yards where sheep are wintered it is usually spread over 
much surface area relatively. In such instances the loss 
from this source is serious where the rains are frequent, 
hence the wisdom of applying it under such conditions 
as soon as possible after it is made. 

Sheep manure is also frequently injured by molds. 



12 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

These are caused by undue heat in the manure in the ab- 
sence of moisture. This heated condition of the manure 
is sometimes spoken of as "fire fang." The hazard of loss 
from this source is much greater when the manure is un- 
der cover than when it is exposed to the elements. The 
mold usually assumes a white color in sheep manure. It 
has then lost nearly all its nitrogen, and its value in other 
respects has become greatly lessened. Sheep manure un- 
der cover is much liable to become thus affected owing to 
the relatively small amount of liquid in the voidings. 

To get the best possible value from sheep manure it 
should be applied to the land in the fresh form, and as 
soon as possible after it is made. That, of course, holds 
true of all manure, but it is pre-eminently true of manure 
made by sheep. When allowed to mold so that the mold 
permeates the mass, it will not repay the labor of apply- 
ing it. 

The cost of applying manure made by sheep is, in the 
aggregate, considerably less than in the case of other ani- 
mals. This is owing to the longer period relatively dur- 
ing which they remain in the pasture. In the autumn 
they are frequently grazed for several weeks after cattle 
have been confined to the yards, and usually they are 
turned out to graze for two to four weeks after cattle 
have been confined to the yards, and generally they are 
turned out to graze from two to three weeks earlier in the 
spring. This, of course, adds to the value of sheep as fer- 
tilizers of the land. 



CHAPTER II 

SHEEP AS SCAVENGERS AND IMPROVERS OF 
CROP YIELDS 

In Chapter II the discussion dwells upon the follow- 
ing: (i) Sheep as weed destroyers; (2) Freeing land 
from weeds by sheep ; (3) Sheep as destroyers of brush ; 

(4) Improving grain yields through grazing with sheep; 

(5) Improving the stand of grass by such grazing; (6) 
Improving clover seed yields through grazing; (7) Why 
sheep should be kept on nearly all farms ; and (8) Sheep 
and fresh meat on the farm. The great service which 
they may render in all these ways is too little understood. 
Their ability to render it is largely the outcome of that 
instinct which prompts them to feed upon a wide variety 
of food. They have been known to winter upon seaweed, 
even in stern maritime climates, and in these they have 
in some instances been fed considerable quantities of 
dried fish. 

Sheep as weed destroyers — The value of sheep as 
weed destroyers has seldom been taken at its true worth. 
The varieties of weeds that sheep will not consume are 
few, providing they may have access to them when they 
are young, and when consuming the weeds they also 
transform them into useful mutton. The weeds thus con- 
sumed that taint mutton offensively are few indeed. 
Among the number are pennycress (Thalaspi arvense) 
and the wild onion (Allium vineale). 

Among the common noxious weeds that they do not care 
to eat, are the mullein and the burdock, and such forms of 
weed life as are protected by spines or prickles. But they will 
frequently consume weeds thus protected when they are 
young, as in the case of the Russian thistle (Salsola Kali, var. 
tragus). The number of the weeds that they will consume 

13 



14 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

is legion. But sheep consume weeds much more readily 
when they are young than when they reach a more advanced 
stage of growth. Succulence in plants is especially grateful 
to sheep, and woodiness in the same is equally distasteful to 
them. For instance, they will readily consume squirrel tail 
(Hordcum jubatum) and foxtail (Setaria glauca) when 
young, but when these reach an advanced stage of growth, 
they will almost starve rather than feed upon them. They 
show a decided preference for some forms of weed life as 
compared even with the useful grasses when the former 
are in the zenith of their succulence. Allow the same weeds 
to reach the woody stage and they will not eat them. Such 
are the weeds popularly known as pigweed (Amaranthus 
hyhridus), and lamb's-quarters (Chcnopcdimn album). 

But in many instances, after weeds have become so 
woody that sheep will not consume them, they will strip 
them of their leaves and thus prevent them from maturing 
seeds. There are but few classes of weed seeds that they 
will not consume when given access to them, hence the im- 
mense service that they may render in grain fields after the 
crop has been harvested. Among the exceptions are those 
protected by stiff hair, as foxtail ; and by prickles and spines, 
as in the case of the cocklebur (Xanthium canadcnse) and 
the sand bur (Ccnchrus tribiiloides). 

Because of this weed-eating habit, sheep may be made 
to render much service in pastures, even when gleaning along 
with other live stock. Many forms of weed life grow amid 
pastures betimes which cattle and horses will not consume 
at any stage of their growth. When sheep may have access 
to these, they trim them down proportionately to their num- 
bers, and in many instances will in time cause them to dis- 
appear. In this way such intruders in pastures as briers and 
bushes of various kinds may be destroyed, as well as plants 
more properly classified as weeds. In pastures on timber 
lands newly cleared sheep may be thus made to render most 
valuable service by destroying the sprouts that grow amid 
the trees. 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS I5 

When sheep may glean amid the stubbles from which 
grain crops have been removed, they not only gather the 
heads of the fallen grain more or less, but they feed upon 
the weeds which have grown among the same. Even though 
they should reject the stalk, almost invariably they will con- 
sume the seeds. The seeds of some weeds when sufficiently 
numerous aid materially in fattening them. Such is wild 
buckwheat (Polygonum convolvulus), which grows so 
abundantly in the grain fields of the northwestern prairies. 
The service which sheep may thus be made to render grain- 
growing farmers is very great. When such crops as dwarf 
essex rape and fall turnips have been sown along with the 
grain, the profits from such grazing usually are greatly en- 
hanced. 

Sheep may be made to profitably consume weeds that 
grow amid standing corn under certain conditions of growth, 
without any injury to the corn. These conditions call for 
corn of sufficient height to produce ears reasonably high 
from the ground, and that has not been too far bent over 
by storms. As is generally known in seasons of much rain- 
fall, weeds may grow luxuriantly after the last cultivation 
given to the corn, and unless eaten down before the corn is 
harvested many of them may mature their seeds. For such 
grazing lambs have higher adaptation than sheep, since they 
are much less liable to disturb the corn. 

Lambs are usually weaned about the time that such 
grazing is ready. The corn stalks furnish a grateful shade 
for the lambs. While thus gleaning they will, when suffi- 
ciently numerous, clean out the weeds. They may also trim 
off the lower leaves of the corn, but the corn crop will not 
be harmed by such trimming. Usually they will not disturb 
the ears as long as other food is plentiful. 

There is no place probably wherein sheep will render 
better service than when allowed to glean amid the by-places 
of the farm. These include such places as paddocks, lanes, 
fence borders, nooks and corners around outbuildings, and 
even around the dwelling, front and rear, in the absence of 



l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

flowers and shrubs. They may even in certain instances ren- 
der good service when gleaning in groves and belts planted 
for protection. It is in such places that weeds are more 
liable to become entrenched and to escape destruction, since, 
if destroyed otherwise than by sheep, hand labor is involved, 
and usually at a season when such labor cannot well be 
spared. When the vegetation on these by-places is neglected, 
it not only means that mischievous forms of weed life grow 
to maturity, but they give the farm an unkempt appearance 
that is repelling. The difference between a nicely grazed 
lane and one rank with weed life is very marked, and the 
same is true of other nooks and corners. When sheep have 
timely and sufficient access to these, almost without any aid 
they will keep them so trimmed that they will present a neat 
appearance. When the sheep are thus employed, they will 
be consuming a variety of food which is much helpful to 
their well being. Sheep thus grazed are usually fat, and 
their summer food is obtained without cost. 

Nowhere probably can sheep render better service than 
when grazing on fallow land when it is infested with weed 
life. Under some conditions there would be little or no 
food for sheep on land that is summer-fallowed, as, for in- 
stance, when the land is frequently plowed while lying fallow 
or frequently cultivated after it has been plowed. Under 
other conditions much food is furnished, especially on 
western prairies where weed growth is very rapid in the 
summer. When sheep can have access to such lands they 
will crop down weeds that might otherwise go to seed. The 
presence of sheep in sufficient numbers would reduce the 
amount of cultivation that would otherwise be called for. 
and the grazing would tend to impact the soil, which would 
in many instances prove a material aid when growing the 
succeeding grain crop. If, at the proper time, which would 
not be later than the end of June, three pounds of rape seed 
were sown per acre and covered with a stroke of the har- 
row, the grazing furnished by the same would in many in- 
stances fatten 10 to 15 sheep or lambs, and with benefit 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS I7 

rather than injury to the crop that would follow. Any 
weeds growing up amid the rape would be consumed by the 
sheep. The only real hazard incurred would be the possi- 
bility of having too much straw in the grain crop that would 
follow, because of the fertility left on the surface of the soil 
by the sheep. 

Freeing lands from weeds — Many kinds of weeds 
may be eradicated by simply growing crops in close suc- 
cession and grazing them down with sheep. When thus 
grazed the land is divided by fences, portable or other- 
wise, so that the grazing may be conducted in alternation 
on the different inclosures. The succession of crops is so 
close that each division of the land is made to produce 
two and in some instances three crops in one season. 
The crops thus grown are annuals, and some mature so 
quickly that they may be regarded as catch crops when 
thus grown. But it is necessary while grazing sheep thus 
to have a grass pasture in reserve on which the sheep 
may be grazed when the wet condition of the ground may 
make it inadvisable to continue the grazing on the lands 
on which the crops are grown in succession. 

The crops best adapted for such grazing will depend 
to a considerable degree on the conditions that relate to 
soil and climate. Soils low in adaptation are those classed 
as clay, because vegetation on these grows slowly and 
they impact readily if grazed when wet. Nor do light 
sands rank high for such a use, because of the amount of 
fertilization which they require to produce good grazing, 
especially when the grazing of these is first begun. Loam 
soils, and especially sandy loams, have highest adaptation 
for being thus grazed. 

In the north the crops that may be grown thus in- 
clude rye, mixed grains, rape, cabbage, corn and sorghum. 
In the central states, cowpeas and soy beans may be 
added to the list. In the far western states, kale and 
vetches may be added, but not soy beans and cowpeas. 
In the Atlantic states, the list may include all those 



l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

named and in addition crimson clover, but the sand vetch 
would grow rather than the common vetch grown in the 
West. In the southern states, the list is a long one. It 
includes winter rye, certain of the cereals, the sand or 
hairy vetch, cowpeas, soy beans, velvet beans, corn and 
the sorghums, rape, cabbage and kale. 

The succession in which these crops should be grown 
will depend largely on natural adaptation. Certain of 
them, as winter rye, the sand vetch and crimson clover, 
grow best in the early spring. Others, as corn, the sor- 
ghums, cowpeas, soy beans and velvet beans, grow best 
in the summer; and yet others, as rape, cabbage and kale, 
are naturally at their best in the autumn. 

The following are prominent among the benefits that 
follow such grazing: First, noxious weeds that infest the 
soil are removed from it, in some instances entirely, and 
in all instances the reduction is marked. The complete- 
ness of the removal effected will depend on the class of 
the weeds and the ways in which they propagate, on the 
kind or kinds of the forage crops and on the manner of 
growing them. 

This system of grazing will soon destroy all biennial 
weeds, as weeds of this class will soon succumb to culti- 
vation so intensive. It will also reduce the most trouble- 
some perennials to such an extent in two or three seasons 
that the labor of removing by hand any plants that may 
grow later becomes easily practicable. This reduction is 
effected through the germination of the weed seeds lying 
in the soil. The frequent stirring given to the soil 
hastens the germination and the weeds thus started are 
cared for by the sheep. The eradication of perennials 
may take longer, but in most instances the frequent 
stirring of the soil, the cropping down of the young plants 
and the smothering influence of the pasture crops will 
bring about the desired results. 

Each kind of forage crop is more hurtful to the 
growth of some weeds than to the growth of others. By 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS I9 

changing the succession in the crops, it is easily possible to 
cripple all kinds of weeds in their growth, by growing those 
crops which will best effect the end sought in each in- 
stance. Some crops grow more quickly than others, and 
in doing so make grazing possible at a time that will do 
most harm to the weeds. Some crowd weeds more than 
others, and some furnish the opportunity for attacking 
weeds to a greater extent than others in the preparation 
of soil called for and also in the time when such prepara- 
tion should be given. When these influences are given 
due attention, the destroying process will be proportion- 
ately hastened. 

The method by which these crops are grown has an 
important bearing on the destruction of weed life. Grow- 
ing crops that call for harrowing after the planting season 
will result in destroying more weeds than growing crops 
that do not call for such treatment, and growing those 
that call for both harrowing and cultivating will prove 
even more effective in the removal of weeds. Careful 
cultivation given to forage crops while they are grow- 
ing will be more effective in destroying perennial weeds 
than other forms of weed life. 

Second, the weeds that grow are transformed into mut- 
ton during the cleaning process. Other classes of live stock 
are much prone to reject weeds, and consequently when the 
effort is made to destroy them they are seldom turned to any 
good use. It may not be possible to make high-class mutton 
from weeds alone, but experience has abundantly proved that 
excellent mutton can be made from forage crops grown as 
outlined and the weeds that grow along with them. 

Third, the land is fertilized while thus being grazed. 
This does not mean that the content of its fertility in the soil 
and subsoil is increased, but that the fertility in the subsoil, 
or at least a part of it, is transformed from inert into avail- 
able forms, and is brought from the subsoil and incorporated 
in the surface soil, in which it is readily accessible to the 
roots of the crops that may be sown. The accumulation of 



20 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

fertility in the surface soil thus becomes more rapid than the 
depletion of the same through the fertility removed in the 
flesh and in the wool of the sheep sold that have been thus 
grazed. If there is any loss of fertility, it is in the subsoil 
rather than in the surface soil. 

Fourth, the soil is left in a condition which makes it 
practicable to prepare it for a crop that is to follow at a 
minimum expenditure of labor. The grazing last grown is 
usually eaten down to the ground. The soil is in a great 
measure free from all forms of weed growth. The richest 
portion of the cultivable area is that which is near the sur- 
face, because of the recent distribution of the droppings on 
the same. It is important that they shall be kept near the 
surface, hence in preparing such land for the succeeding 
crop, the disk will usually answer the purpose better than 
the plow, hence the labor called for is less than if the land 
were plowed. 

Fifth, this method of grazing sheep tends to protect 
them from some forms of parasitical disease. For instance, 
it is about certain that it tends to shield lambs from attack 
by tapeworms, and stomach worms. When the dams are 
not allowed to graze on old pasture lands in the spring, it is 
believed that lambs thus grazed with their dams will not usu- 
ally be attacked with these ailments. If this belief should be 
sustained in all instances, it will bring within the reach of 
the flock master an easily practicable method of protecting 
his flock from infestation. 

Sixth, grazing sheep thus tends to increase the revenue 
from the land. This arises from the marked increase in 
the production of wool and mutton as compared with pro- 
duction from the same under the usual conditions that at- 
tend the grazing of sheep. The expense of production where 
the management is judicious, should be less relatively than 
under ordinary methods of grazing, though much more in 
the aggregate. Experiments conducted to show a compara- 
tive profit from such a system of grazing as compared with 
grazing on grass pastures only have not come to the knowl- 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 21 

edge of the author, but the profits should certainly be satis- 
factory where the management is judicious. 

There are, of course, some objections to grazing sheep 
thus. One is found in the labor involved at a busy season of 
the year. There is first, the work of preparing the land for 
each successive crop and sowing it ; second, the labor in- 
volved, it may be, in cultivating some of the crops; third, 
the labor of taking the sheep to and from the pastures, and 
fourth, the work of removing and putting up frequently such 
portions of the fences as are movable when movable fences 
are used. 

A second objection is found in the outlay for fencing. 
While it is, of course, practicable to introduce this system of 
grazing on any arable farm and on any portion of it where 
introduced on a large scale, the arrangement of the fences 
with reference to the grazing is a matter of prime impor- 
tance. When planning any system of grazing through grow- 
ing crops in succession, the aim should be to secure one plot 




1 


1 


li 


II 


1 


1 


II 




1 


1 


II 


II 


1 


1 



FIG. 1— PANEL OF MOVABLE FENCE AND HEADPIECE 

or field long in proportion to the width, in order that the 
outlay for the cross fences, movable or otherwise, should 
be relatively low. If two such plots or fields can be secured 
with a lane between them, the conditions are so far im- 
proved. There should be easy access to a grass pasture and 
also to the sheds, as it is necessary to admit the sheep fre- 
quently to the sheds or the pastures while they are being 
thus grazed. In Figure i is shown a panel of movable fence 
and the headpiece for the same. Each panel is composed of 
three boards, 4x1 inches wide and a fourth one at the bot- 



22 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

torn 1x6 inches wide. When complete the panel is 12 feet 
long and 3 feet 2 inches high. The end cross slats are nailed 
on the same side and 6 inches from the ends of the boards. 
The spaces from below are 6, 6^ and 7^4 inches. The bot- 
tom board of the headpiece is 6 x 1% inches and 3 feet 6 
inches long on the ground side. The two uprights are 4 
X i}^ inches and 4 feet long. One is nailed on each side 
of the sole piece, and these cross each other at about 6 
inches from the ends. The notches are 3 inches deep and 
2 inches wide. When in place the corresponding slats of 
the panels rest side by side in the notches. Wire nails 
are used 33/2 inches long. It is frequently necessary to 
drive a short stake beside the base of the headpiece, which 
is also nailed to it, to prevent the wind from tipping it 
over. 

A third objection to grazing sheep thus arises from 
the harm that follows such grazing when the soil is wet 
from rain or when the crops well grown are wet with 
dew. Harm comes to the land if grazed soon after heavy 
rain ; such harm results from impaction. It increases with 
increase in the clay content in the soil, with increase in 
the saturation of the land, and with increase in the weight 
of the sheep that are being thus grazed. Harm comes to 
the crop, especially when the growth has advanced some 
distance above the ground, as the sheep while grazing on 
it when wet with dew or rain break it down much more 
readily than they would under other conditions of graz- 
ing. The grazing is also soiled more or less by earth ad- 
hering to it, and in this way it becomes so offensive to 
the sheep as to be rejected by them. Harm to some ex- 
tent may also come to the sheep when wading through 
tall pastures, as for instance those furnished by rape, corn 
and sorghum, when these are saturated by rain or a 
copious dew. Such a condition is not natural, and, there- 
fore, it cannot be conducive to the well being of the sheep. 
The necessity for a grass pasture will be thus apparent 
on which to graze the sheep when the other pastures are 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 23 

too wet to admit of grazing them without injury. In an 
experiment conducted at the Minnesota station the author 
succeeded in grazing i6 sheep, of which lo were lambs, 
during nearly all the period of grazing from spring until 
the late autumn on one acre of land, without giving them 
any additional food. The acre was divided into four equal 
parts and crops were grown in succession on each of 
these. The sheep were moved from one to the other divi- 
sion as occasion called for such removal and the crops 
were grown in succession. As soon as one crop was 
grazed down, another was sown. The crops consisted 
mainly of winter rye, mixed grains, dwarf Essex rape, 
sorghum, small growing corn, and cabbage. The experi- 
ment made it very clear that in humid areas a very large 
number of sheep could be maintained on a relatively small 
area of land, and with much benefit to the land, viewed 
from the standpoints of weed eradication and fertilization. 
Sheep as destroyers of brush — Sheep when properly 
managed may render substantial aid in destroying brush 
on lands from which it is desired to clear away the same. 
Their value for such uses, however, has probably been 
overestimated. For destroying brush, they are not nearly 
the equal of goats. Nevertheless, they may be turned to 
excellent account in destroying the sprouts that spring 
up around the roots of trees in pastures from which the 
forest has been recently cut away. They will also clean 
out such growths of shrub and brush as are wont to 
spring up after the forest has been cut away, as, for in- 
stance, sassafras of the South and the raspberry of the 
North. Mowing down the briers where sheep graze will 
materially hasten their extermination. Some breeds of 
sheep have higher adaptation for such a use than others. 
In this respect the Merinos probably stand first, because 
of the natural inheritance from ancestors which have been 
accustomed to graze over wide areas on which grew a 
varied flora, and because it is more admissible to keep 



24 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

them in large flocks where much grazing may be required 
than in the case of other breeds. 

Sheep should never be confined exclusively to brush 
pastures. The leaves of trees and shrubs are not the 
natural diet of sheep, although they may live on the same 
for a considerable time. While goats will fatten on such 
food, if sheep are confined to brush pastures exclusively 
or even mainly, but one result can follow, which is that 
the flock will become the wreck of its former self. Great 
loss has sometimes followed the attempts to keep sheep 
thus by investors who did not know that sheep would 
not thrive on brush. 

Nevertheless, under certain conditions, they may be 
used with much advantage in destroying brush, provid- 
ing they are suitably managed when thus used. They 
should be provided with a grass pasture on which they 
may graze during a portion of each day. The brush will 
be more quickly destroyed if the sheep can be taken from 
the corral to the brush pasture in the morning when they 
are hungry, or if they can be turned into it the previous 
evening. They will then browse freely on the brush, but 
in the afternoon they should have the run of a grass 
pasture well stocked with grass. When the grass and 
the brush are in the same pasture, the brush will eventu- 
ally be killed, but not in one season where the brush pre- 
ponderates. 

Grain grazed by sheep — In some instances grain 
crops may be grazed by sheep during the early stages of 
growth with benefit to the crop, in addition to the graz- 
ing furnished. In other instances such grazing, even of 
the same crops and on the same soils, may prove detri- 
mental to the yields obtained from them. In some in- 
stances the increase from such grazing may be more than 
50 per cent, and in other instances the decrease may be 
equally large. The marked difference in the results may 
be the outcome of a difference in the character of the 
seasons in conjunction with prudent or imprudent grazing. 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 25 

Nearly all the small cereals may be profited by such 
grazing under certain conditions. The winter crops, as 
winter rye, winter wheat and in the South winter oats, 
will furnish such grazing for a longer period, of course, 
than any of the cereals that are spring sown. Peas do not 
stand such grazing as well as other cereals, and the same 
is probably true of legumes generally. The production 
of corn and the sorghums is probably lowered in all in- 
stances by such grazing where a mature crop is sought. 
If corn is eaten down after it has produced the first joint, 
it will not grow again. 

It would seem correct to say, on first thought, that 
the yields obtained from the small cereals will not be in- 
creased by such grazing, except in instances in which the 
crop ungrazed would produce relatively too large a pro- 
portion of straw. But this view must not be pressed too 
far, for there are instances in which the simple impaction 
of the soil by the treading of the sheep would seem to 
have improved the yields even where straw is not pro- 
duced in excess. Such are certain soils of the prairie, so 
light in texture as to sink easily beneath the tread. The 
impaction thus produced tends to lessen the escape of 
moisture by surface evaporation and its benefits are 
greatest in a dry season. Furthermore, when the small 
cereals are grazed, they stool more than when not grazed, 
and this means a relative increase in nearly all instances 
in the number of heads produced. 

When winter rye, wheat or oats are growing so rankly 
as a result of rich land and early sowing that, unchecked, 
they will head out too early, then it would be in order to 
graze them down for a time. But judgment must be 
used as to the closeness of the grazing, as undue exposure 
of the roots to the influences of severe winter weather 
may prove harmful to the crop. Localities in which the 
winter weather is usually not extreme are best adapted to 
such grazing. When spring-sown cereals grow so rankly 
in the early stages of growth that the danger is imminent 



26 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

that they will lodge, then great good may result from 
grazing them down for a time by sheep. Early sown 
crops will profit the most from such grazing, as the graz- 
ing tends to make the crops ripen somewhat later, hence 
the grazing down of late crops may so defer maturity in 
these that they would pass the season most favorable to 
maturing under the best conditions before maturity is 
reached. When the area to be grazed is large relatively 
in proportion to the number of sheep on hand, the graz- 
ing may begin on spring-sown cereals as soon as the sheep 
can obtain food from the plants, but cereals fall sown are 
not usually grazed thus early, as the season for grazing is 
so much longer than with cereals spring sown. 

Grazing cereals with sheep may harm the crops 
rather than help them under certain conditions. Harm 
will follow if they are grazed on these crops growing on 
clay soil so moist that impaction will result from the graz- 
ing. Such soils do not receive benefit from impaction, 
but usually the opposite. Such grazing is seldom prac- 
ticable on stiff clays, and generally is not needed, as on 
such soils crops do not usually grow too. rankly. Harm 
will follow the grazing of winter crops much beyond the 
season when spring growth begins, although winter rye 
may in some instances be pastured with advantage to the 
crop for two or three weeks subsequently to the opening 
of the growing season, and harm will follow if the graz- 
ing is continued so long in any case as to reduce the pro- 
duction of straw below what is necessary to produce normal 
yields of grain. Such an occurrence follows pasturing 
too long continued in all instances, and it is accentu- 
ated when the weather turns dry. The necessity, there- 
fore, for exercising correct judgment when grazing such 
crops is ever present. As the nature of the weather can- 
not be forecasted with certainty, the prudence which 
stops short of adequate pasturing is to be commended 
rather than the temerity which hazards pasturing unduly 
severe. 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 2"^ 

Grazing young grass with sheep — The stand of newly 
sown grasses and clovers has in many instances been im- 
proved by grazing them with sheep, whether these have 
been sown alone or with a nurse crop, but this result does 
not follow under all conditions nor on all soils. When 
sown alone, the benefit may come, first, from the impac- 
tion of the soil, and, second, from the removal of the 
shade of weeds that would otherwise overshadow the 
grasses. When sown with grain crops, the benefit may 
come, first, from the impaction through treading; second, 
from the removal of the shade that would otherwise over- 
shadow the young grasses, and, third, from lessening the 
need for moisture supplies in the grain crops, thus leav- 
ing more for the grasses. 

Newly sown grasses are thus improved in nearly all 
instances when they are sown along with one or more 
kinds of grain in the spring; that is, on soils where such 
grazing is admissible. On light soils they are more im- 
proved relatively than on heavy soils, and in a dry season 
than in one over moist. Such grazing of newly sown 
grasses is not so admissible in the autumn, as it would 
tend to the removal of the protection which is so help- 
ful to the plants in winter. On light, spongy soils difii- 
culty is found in obtaining a stand of grasses sown along 
with a nurse crop when the season turns dry. The grasses 
grow so delicately, because of the little moisture left for 
them by the grain plants, and because of the crowding 
of the same, that in many instances they perish outright 
after the nurse crop has been removed by harvesting. 

On the soft, spongy soils of the prairie, and espe- 
cially where moisture is not plentiful, when grass seeds 
are sown with one or more of the small cereals and the 
grain and grass are grazed down almost from the first, 
the stand of the grass will be much better than if the crop 
had not been so grazed. In some seasons a stand of grass 
will be obtained on such soils if thus grazed when failure 
would have resulted but for the grazing. When grass 



28 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

seeds are sown on newly cleared forest lands, the same 
result will follow. The sunlight admitted by the grazing 
tends to make the young plants strong. A stand of grass 
may thus be obtained in many instances when the seed is 
sown along with some crop grown especially to provide 
grazing for sheep. P'or instance, grasses may be thus 
sown with rape, cowpeas, soy beans, and even sorghum 
when the latter is grown for grazing. 

Such grazing, however, is not admissible on lands 
that usually impact too readily. Such are heavy clay 
soils. The growth of the young plants on these is rela- 
tively slow at the best, and would be slower if the soil. 
already too dense, were made more so by the treading of 
sheep. To graze such soils when unduly moist would not 
only greatly injure present but also future production. 

Sheep and clover seed yields — The yields of clover 
seed may frequently be much increased by grazing the 
crop judiciously with sheep. This holds true, not only of 
the common red, but also of the alsike and the mammoth 
varieties. The increase in the yields of seed with the 
varieties last named arises, first, from the check given to 
over-exuberant growth in clovers ; and, second, from the 
influence which early grazing has on increased stooling 
in plants. The first tends to center development more 
on seed production than on the production of stem and 
leaves; and the second, by increasing the number of the 
stems and the heads, increases the number of the seeds. 
The increase with the medium red arises from the same 
causes, and also from the more favorable season for abun- 
dant seed production at which the crop may be made to ma- 
ture. Ordinarily, seed is obtained from the second growth 
of the common red variety, the first having been taken 
for hay. Owing to the lateness of the growth in some in- 
stances, and probably to the partial exhaustion of the 
powers of the plant in others, the yields of the seed are 
reduced. Reduction in yields is also caused in some in- 
stances by the clover midge (Cecidomyia legiimiiiicoJa), 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 29 

and it may be by other insects. By grazing with sheep the 
maturity of the seed crop may be so hastened that the crop 
will escape injury from the midge. 

When clover intended for seed is grazed by sheep the 
grazing should begin soon after growth begins in the 
clover. The aim should be to so stock the land that the 
grazing shall be reasonably close and also reasonably uni- 
form. The continuance of the grazing should be deter- 
mined by the character of the season and by the variety 
of the clover. In a dry season it should be short, in a wet 
season longer, but in no instance should it continue many 
weeks from the beginning of the grazing. The common 
red clover may be grazed longer than the other varieties. 
Unless the grazing is uniform the red clover seed will 
not ripen evenly. 

Such grazing should not be attempted on clay soils 
when they are so wet that impaction would follow the 
grazing; nor should it be too long continued, lest the abil- 
ity of the plants to produce sufficiently strong stems and 
])lants for abundant production of seeds should be too 
much curtailed. As the nature of the weather cannot be 
forecasted with certainty, it is difficult to determine when 
such grazing should cease. It should be remembered, 
however, that to graze too little is wiser than to graze too 
much. 

Sheep on all farms — Several reasons may be given 
showing why sheep should be kept on all or nearly all 
the farms of the United States and Canada. They should 
be so kept, first, because of the service which they can 
render; second, because a small flock may be so main- 
tained at little cost; and third, because the conditions un- 
der which they may be so kept are most favorable to their 
thrift. 

The service which they may render in destroying 
weeds has already been discussed. See page 13. So 
marked is this service that it alone would furnish a justi- 
fication for keeping them in at least limited numbers. 



30 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Usually the farm which sustains a small band of sheep 
may at once be distinguished from farms around it with- 
out sheep by the greater cleanliness which characterizes 
it. If sheep were generally kept on farms, the disgrace 
of weed pollution which rests upon so many of the farms 
of this country would to a great extent be taken away. 
But in addition to this service, they may be made to fur- 
nish a large proportion of the meat required by the farmer 
and his household. The cjuality of the meat so furnished 
cannot be surpassed, since it is grown on a wide variety 
of'foods much of which is possessed of ample succulence, at 
least during the season of grazing. Should the meat thus 
furnished be not all wanted on the farm, the market for it 
locally is usually good. 

The cost of keeping a small flock on the farm is small 
indeed. Much of the food which they consume during 
the grazing season would not be consumed but for the 
presence of the sheep. The food to be charged against 
them is what they consume in winter, and the season for 
the winter feeding of sheep is shorter than with other 
animals. When the service which they render in destroy- 
ing Aveeds and in enriching the soil is considered, the 
charges that may legitimately be made against them are 
small indeed. 

It has been noticed that when sheep are thus kept in 
small flocks, they keep in a better condition as to flesh 
and thrift generally than if kept in large bands. The per- 
centage of loss is also much less. The reasons are found 
in the variety of the food furnished in the absence of over- 
stocking in the pasture and over-crowding in the sheds, 
and in the lessened liability to disease which the lowering 
of vitality brings with it in the weaker animals in a large 
flock. When the benefits from keeping a small band of 
sheep on the farm are considered, it is, indeed, surpris- 
ing that they are found on so few farms. The percentage 
of the farms on which they are now kept is small, indeed, 
compared with the same a few decades ago. The reasons 



SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 3 1 

for the change include the following: First, the loss from 
dogs has driven many farmers out of the industry. With 
increase in population dog| have proportionately in- 
creased, and the losses resulting, therefore, have more 
than kept pace with increase in the number of the dogs, 
since vagrant dogs in growing villages are more numer- 
ous than when the population was less dense, and these 
are often ill fed. Second, many farms, especially those 
on western prairies, are not fenced and until they are, in 
part at least, sheep cannot be kept upon them. Third, 
the transfer of the manufacture of wool from the looms of 
the farm to those of the woolen mills has very much less- 
ened the necessity for keeping the sheep on the farm. 

The number of sheep that may thus be kept on the 
farm with profit for the uses specified will, of course, 
vary with the conditions. It would seem correct to say 
that usually the flock should not be less than, say 20 
breeding ewes on each 160 acres. That number should 
keep weeds well in check in by-places, and should furnish 
all the mutton, and more probably, than would be wanted 
on the farm. If the number on the average farm were 
introduced into the farms of the United States and Can- 
ada, the result would be a virtual revolutionizing of the 
sheep industry in both countries. 

Sheep and fresh meat on the farm — No kind of live 
stock kept on the farm is so well adapted to furnish the 
household with fresh meat as sheep, unless it be poultry. 
This is owing to the light weight relatively of the carcass. 
Unless, in the warmest months, a lamb may be kept fresh 
until consumed, and with an ice-house on the farm, it 
may be kept fresh in any weather. 

The mutton which such sheep furnish is a delicacy. 
The variety of the plants on which the sheep feed is such 
as to furnish excellent flavor in the meat. The succu- 
lence makes it tender and juicy. The abundance of the 
grazing makes it well covered. No kind of meat can be 
furnished that is superior to mutton thus grown. It is a 



32 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

luxury in the line of meat, and the marvel is that so few 
of the farmers avail themselves of the opportunity to en- 
joy it. ... 

The influence on the cost of living is very material. 
In the average home where all the food consumed is pur- 
chased, meat is the most costly item of the living. Where 
it is not reared it must, of course, be purchased ; hence 
the wisdom of trying to render such outlay unnecessary 
as far as practicable by growing home supplies of meat 
on the farm. 



CHAPTER III 

SHEEP FOR WOOL, FOR MUTTON AND FOR 
BOTH USES 

This chapter discusses the following phases of the 
subjects of which it treats: (i) Classification of sheep 
based on use; (2) The wool and mutton-producing 
breeds; (3) The influences that afifect wool production; 
(4) The influences that affect mutton production; (5) 
The wool and mutton breeds contrasted ; (6) Conditions 
more favorable to mutton production mainly ; (7) Cross- 
ing merinos on mutton breeds and their grades ; (8) 
Crossing mutton breeds on Merinos and their grades ; 
(9) What the aim should be in wool production ; and (10) 
What the aim should be in mutton production. 

Classification based on use — The classification of 
sheep based on use divides them into wool-producing and 
mutton-producing breeds, and also into breeds which are 
grown for the dual purpose of furnishing both wool and 
mutton. In the United States and Canada sheep are 
never grown exclusively for one purpose, though they are 
frequently grown with a view to give prominence to wool 
production in the one instance and to mutton production 
in the other. In well-managed flocks, the aim now is to 
produce a maximum yield of both wool and mutton from 
the breed or grade of sheep that is being grown. 

The time was when sheep were grown in the United 
States much more for the production of wool than for the 
production of mutton. Wool was the primary object 
sought, mutton being the secondary or incidental product. 
This held down what may be termed the American 
Merino age of sheep husbandry in the United States. 
This period covered practically the whole of the nine- 
teenth century, although during the last quarter of the 

33 




34 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH TJSES 35 

century the current had set in toward increased mutton 
productioii. During the greater portion of this century 
it has been claimed, and the claim would seem to be cor- 
rect, that Merinos and their grades constituted fully 95 
l)er cent of all the sheep grown. On the ranges especially 
were sheep grown mainly for wool, and to further the 
production thus obtained they were kept in many 
instances to a reasonably advanced age, in striking con- 
trast to the comparatively early age at which such stocks 
are disposed of at the present time. It would seem cor- 
rect to say that under no conditions are sheep kept in the 
United States only for the production of wool. This, 
liowever, has been done doubtless in pastoral countries 
before the era when the shipping of frozen mutton began. 

Whether wool or mutton shall be most sought in the 
growing of sheep under American and Canadian condi- 
tions will be determined chiefly by the conditions under 
which they are grown. On the arable farm mutton pro- 
duction, as a rule, is the dominant end for which they are 
grown. The greatly increased demand for mutton dur- 
ing recent years has stimulated production for this end. 
The character of the foods grown makes such produc- 
tion easily possible. Even on the range, mutton pro- 
duction has much more significance than in former years. 
This change is accentuated by the demand for sheep to be 
fattened, the supply being now largely drawn from the 
ranges. The increased demand for mutton sheep during 
recent years has greatly increased the crossing of the 
Alerino types with rams of the more distinctive mutton 
breeds. 

Wool and mutton-producing breeds — The Merino 
types were formerly classed as wool-producing sheep, 
because of the extent to which the production of wool 
was dominant. These were probably the only types in 
America that were so characterized. The modifications 
in the breeding of these during recent years, and espe- 
cially during the past three or four decades, has, in a 



36 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 



sense, brought them into the dual class. More especially 
is this true of the Rambouillet and Delaine types. 

The mutton breeds include all the middle and long 
wool breeds. The former of these in America include the 
Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, Cheviot, Suffolk, 
Hampshire and Oxford Down breeds. The mountain 
breeds are in the dual class. Of these onlv the West 



A^ 




FIG. 3— YEARLING RAMBOUILLETS GROWN FOR WOOL AND MUTTON 

Property of F. W. Cook, Mansfield, Ohio. 

(Courtesy of owner) 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 37 

Highland and the Welsh Mountain are in this country, 
and the numbers of both are yet inconsiderable. 

A classification strictly accurate will put all the 
breeds of sheep in America in the dual class. Some of 
these, as the Merino types, may be properly classed as 
wool and mutton producing. All the other breeds may 
be properly classed as mutton and wool producing. The 
modifications resulting from the improvement of the mut- 
ton form on the one hand and wool production on the 
other have in many instances been quite pronounced 
during recent years. 

Influences that affect wool production — The chief of 
the influences that affect wool production are climate, 
food and care, breeding and age. The influences thus ex- 
erted are not equally potent, and these do not always 
influence wool in the same way. These influences will 
now be considered briefly. 

It would seem correct to say that with decrease in 
the mean temperature of climates wool increases in fine- 
ness, and vice versa. This view is supported by the fact 
that the wool fibers borne by sheep on the plains of hot 
climates are usually coarser and fewer in number than 
the same in cold climates. On the other hand, the moun- 
tain breeds are usually clad in wool that is more or less 
dense and fine. Too much must not be made, however, of 
these general contrasts. They may be so influenced by 
food and breeding that contrasts even the opposite may 
be drawn from breeds kept under such conditions. The 
fineness of the wool of the Spanish Merino for instance, 
has been maintained in the somewhat austere climate of 
New England as fully as in the balmy climate of South- 
ern Spain. The same is true of this breed of sheep in the 
mild latitudes of Australia or in the stern climate of 
Sweden. It is evident, therefore, that other influences, as 
selection, food and breeding, may be made to more than 
counterbalance this general tendency of climate. The 
degree of the moisture in climates also influences wool. 



38 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

but it probably does so more through the influence which 
it exerts on food than directly. It is true, nevertheless, 
that while moisture is generally favorable to the growth 
of wool of strong fiber, this does not follow where heavy 
and excessive rainfall is allowed to wash out much of the 
yolk from the wool. Such wool will lack that softness 
and elasticity which it would otherwise possess. 

That food and care exercise a potent influence on 
wool is a foregone conclusion. That it should be so is 
self-evident, since wool is produced and sustained by food 
the same as the flesh and bone which it covers, and suit- 
able protection, therefore, is as necessary for the produc- 
tion and maintenance of the former as of the latter. Food 
influences wool, first, through the sustenance actually 
furnished to the fibers ; and, second, through the lubrica- 
tion given to them, Both influences will be proportionate 
to the amount and character of the food given, but both 
will be modified by the care bestowed on the flock and 
the protection furnished. Foods that have the highest 
adaptation to the requirements of digestion will also have 
the highest adaptation for wool production. Foods, there- 
fore, that have high adaptation for the growth of the car- 
cass have also high adaptation for the growth of the wool 
that covers it. 

Speaking- in a general way, it would seem correct to 
say (i) that the coarseness of the wool increases with the 
coarseness of the food fed; (2) that its length up to a 
certain limit increases with the suitability of the food; 
(3) that the strength of its fiber is influenced by the suc- 
culence of the food; and (4) that evenness of strength in 
the fiber is influenced by the degree of the nutrition fur- 
nished. That the general tendency in coarse foods is to 
produce coarse wool is shown in the evolution of breeds 
in Great Britain. The breeds which produce the finest 
wool are found on the downs of the southern counties. 
The breeds with coarse wool are found on lands with 
coarser herbage, as those of Lincoln and Kent. And yet 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 39 

this general tendency must not be pressed too far, as the 
fineness of the wool in the Merino breeds has been main- 
tained alike on the short herbage of the mountains of 
Spain and the more abundant herbage of the low lands of 
Holland. The influence thus exerted is so slow as to be 
imperceptible, hence it may be counteracted by other in- 
fluences, such as breeding and selection. The influence is 
indirect, as directly food does not increase the diameter 
of the wool fiber, nor does it increase the number of fibers. 
The influence of suitability in food on increase in the 
length of wool is shown in the great increase in the length 
of staple in the American Merino compared with its an- 
cestor, the Spanish Merino. The limit of such increase 
is the limit of capacity in the breed. That the strength of 
the fiber is influenced by the succulence in the food fol- 
lows from the favorable influence which succulence ex- 
erts on digestion. The more vigorous the digestion, the 
more abundant are the materials from the assimilated 
nutrients fed, and, therefore, the more abundant will be 
the nutrient used in wool production. The peculiar luster 
imparted to the wool of Lincoln sheep on their native 
soils is the outcome of the succulence, and, it may be, of 
some other characteristics of the grazing. The great ex- 
cellence of the wool of Merino sheep grown in parts of 
Ohio and Pennsylvania is doubtless due in part to the 
succulent and nutritious character of the herbage. Yet 
this thought must not be pushed too far, as good wool is 
furnished by the dry herbage of the hot plains of Aus- 
tralia. The influence of food on the strength of the fiber 
is so marked that deprivation in the food supplies tends 
at once to decrease in the size of the wool fiber and de- 
tracts from the lubrication which tends so much to main- 
tain strength and good condition in the wool. 

That care should influence growth in wool is self- 
evident. Neglect in any form will soon be evidenced in 
the wool. Lack of food will weaken the fiber. Lack of 
succulence in the food will lessen its luster. Lack of 



40 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

protection from rainstorms will result in loss of yolk in 
the fleece of coarse wool sheep, and a massed and pasty 
condition of yolk in that of fine wool breeds. Too much 
protection will unsettle equilibrium in the consistency of 
the yolk through an excess of heat. Lack of care will, 
of course, neutralize the effects of good feeding in pro- 
portion as it exists. 

Breeding, accompanied by careful selection, is more 
potent in bringing about modifications in wool produc- 
tion than any other influence. The influence thus ex- 
erted relates to increase or decrease in the number of 
the wool fibers, to the length of these and to the size and 
strength of the fiber. Breeding without selection and 
selection without breeding will effect such changes, but 
very much more slowly than when these act in conjunc- 
tion. Even when acting in conjunction, the changes ef- 
fected are slow. A few generations of judicious breeding, 
accompanied by selection, will enable the breeder to 
change the form to meet the requirements of modification ; 
but many generations may be required to effect the same 
in regard to wool. The exact method of securing these 
modifications cannot be discussed here, they are so many 
and so various. But attention should be called to the 
modifications in wool production in the evolution of the 
Rambouillet and Delaine breeds from the American Me- 
rino, which are now matters of history. 

The trend of the influence exerted by age and size 
on wool production is the same in all breeds. The differ- 
ence is one rather of degree than of kind. It would seem 
correct to say that, as a rule, the heaviest fleece shorn 
is that first taken from the sheep, and that decrease fol- 
lows in an increasing ration as age advances. The said 
decrease is not usually marked in the second shearing. 
With Merinos it is claimed that in some instances there 
is no decrease. The decrease extends not only to the 
weight of the wool, but also to the length and the amount 
of the yolk produced. In some breeds it is seen in the 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 4 1 

loss of wool or failure to produce wool on the underline. 
The most wool and the best wool is, therefore, produced 
by young sheep. It is also true that the percentage of 
wool to live weight decreases steadily with increase in 
the size of the sheep. In the best shearers the unwashed 
fleece of the Merino goes as high as 36 per cent of the 
live weight. The percentage of wool in the middle wool 
breeds to the live weight is considerably less and in the 
coarse wool breeds there is further decrease. The high 
relative production of wool in Merinos is due in part to 
the large amount of yolk in the wool. It is claimed that 
the weight of the secretions and exhalations from the 
yolk glands exceed the evacuations from the bowels and 
bladder taken together. 

Influences that affect mutton production — The chief 
influences that afifect the production of mutton are 
climate, food, breeding, care and wool. As in the produc- 
tion of wool, these influences are by no means equally 
potent. Food, breeding and care exert a more potent in- 
fluence on mutton form than climate or the fleece. 

In the evolution of breeds, climate has exerted an 
important influence. This influence is, of course, much 
greater when sheep may be maintained with little or no 
protection. Climate affects both size and constitution in 
sheep. It affects size largely through the character of the 
food, which is the outcome of climatic conditions. This 
explains, in part at least, why the largest breeds of sheep 
have been evolved in temperate climates. The oppressive 
heat of hot climates militates against size and the stern- 
ness of cold climates exerts a similar influence. A moist 
climate is more favorable to increase in size and also to 
prolificacy than a dry one. The favorable influence on 
prolificacy is the outcome of the succulence in the food. 
The best climatic conditions for the development of 
sheep are those where the temperatures are moderate and 
equable and where the air is moist. This, in part, ac- 
counts for the great success attained in growing sheep 



42 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

of high quality in Great Britain. Sheep reared under 
austere conditions are more rugged, as a rule, than sheep 
reared under conditions the opposite. But the influences 
thus exerted by an invigorating climate may, of course, 
be counteracted by unwise protection. 

It would seem correct to say that no influence is so 
marked on mutton production as that of food. Food 
affects the development of carcass in many ways. Chiefly 
among these are the influences that it exerts on size, on 
bone development and on the fiber of the flesh. The in- 
fluence exerted by food on size is shown in the evolution 
of the various breeds of sheep produced in Great Britain. 
The small breeds, like the Southdown, are the product of 
the short and fine grasses of the southern downs. The 
large breeds, like the Lincoln, were produced by luxuri- 
ant and somewhat coarse herbage. The influence of food 
on development is further illustrated in the increase in 
the average size of the American Merino over its ances- 
tor, the Spanish Merino. It is also shown in the rela- 
tively large size of sheep of any breed that are main- 
tained on a diet in which alfalfa is a leading food factor. 
The influence of food on bone development is seen in the 
greater size and strength of bone possessed by sheep that 
are fed freely on foods that contain relatively a high per- 
centage of phosphoric acid and potash as compared with 
the same in sheep to which foods low in these ingredients 
are freely fed. Where field roots form a considerable por- 
tion of the diet of the animal during the period of growth, 
the development of bone will be much more than when 
such food as corn is fed in the place of roots. 

The influence of food on fiber — that is, on the grain 
of the flesh — is seen in the coarser fiber of the flesh of 
the large breeds as compared with those of the small 
breeds. The former have been evolved on pastures which 
furnish herbage rich and relatively coarse. The latter 
have been evolved on pastures that furnish a short and 
relatively fine herbage. When Southdown sheep are 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 43 

grazed for successive generations on herbage abundant 
and coarse, they increase in size, but they lose something 
in the fineness of the grain of the flesh. 

The influence of breeding on mutton production is 
very marked. The progeny of the first cross of a pre- 
potent pure-bred sire on ewes of common or mixed breed- 
ing will bear a close resemblance to the sire in appearance 
and qualities. The progeny of, say, the fourth generation 
will bear so close a resemblance to the breed from which 
the sires are chosen that, judged from the standpoint of 
appearances, they would pass for pure breds. These re- 
sults, however, can only be attained when food is suffi- 
ciently furnished and when the care is as it should be. 
The crossing, or to speak more accurately, the upsfrad- 
ing, thus effected, should have a regard to the conditions 
which relate to the furnishing of food. If the attempt is 
made to increase size through up-grading beyond what 
the food ordinarily furnished will maintain, it will end in 
failure. The natural tendency toward increased size, the 
outcome of breeding, must be adequately supported by 
such food supplies as will maintain the tendency referred to. 

The care bestowed qualifies every attempt to improve 
the carcass through breeding as well as through feeding. 
The efifort to efifect improvement through correct breeding 
may be more than neutralized by lack of proper care. On 
the other hand, superior care may go far toward neutraliz- 
ing the untoward results that follow mistakes in breeding. 
The care that should be given is dwelt upon in nearly every 
chapter of the book. 

Wool is helpful to production in so far as it furnishes 
protection sufficient to keep the sheep in a comfortable 
condition. To accomplish this the covering must be 
enough to protect the carcass against inclement weather, 
and it should not be so much as to prove oppressive 
through the over-production of heat. Up to a certain 
limit, therefore, wool production will be helpful to mut- 
ton production, notwithstanding the drain on assimilated 



44 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

food in order to produce the wool. On the other hand, 
it is adverse to mutton production, first, when it is pres- 
ent beyond the actual needs of the sheep to insure a con- 
dition of comfort ; second, when the effort to secure it of 
a certain quality leads to confinement which results in re- 
duced vigor ; and third, when maximum production of wool 
is sought regardless of the influence which it exerts on the 
development of carcass. It is present beyond the needs 
of the sheep when it becomes oppressive on the advent of 
warm weather. The decrease of vigor in the Saxon 
Merino, which accompanied the efforts to secure wool 
superfine in quality, illustrates the adverse influence re- 
sulting from too much confinement. The lack of mutton 
form of the highest type in Merinos illustrates the ad- 
verse influence on the carcass where maximum produc- 
tion is sought in wool. 

Likewise when maximum production is sought in mut- 
ton, the influence is adverse to maximum production in wool. 
This finds illustration in the far less degree of the im- 
provement of the wool product made by Bakewell in 
Leicester sheep as compared with the improvement made 
in the mutton form. While it is impossible to achieve 
maximum production in wool and mutton in the same ani- 
mal, it is, nevertheless, quite possible to reach high at- 
tainment in both respects in the same animal. This is 
amply illustrated in the transformation of the Spanish 
Merino into the Rambouillet and Delaine types. It is 
also illustrated in the high productions of sheep of the 
Shropshire breed in both wool and mutton. 

Wool and mutton breeds contrasted — The more ap- 
parent contrasts between the two classes are such as re- 
late to size, form, hardihood and prolificacy. Breeds 
recognized as wool producing are of less size, as a rule, 
than those usually recognized as the mutton breeds. The 
average weight of the American and Saxon Merino is less 
than that of the mutton breeds. The difference, how- 
ever, is growing less. This result comes from the in- 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 45 

creased attention given to the improvement of mutton 
form during recent years. As a result of this the differ- 
ence in size between the breeds named is not marked. It 
is also greater than that of the mountain breeds. 

It would seem correct to say that the essentials as 
to form for successful wool production are essentially the 
same as for successful mutton production. But it is 
quite possible, nevertheless, to grow wool of the highest 
class on form that is far from ideal for the production of 
mutton. Owing to the less favorable conditions as to 
food and care furnished to sheep kept mainly for wool, 
these have less development in mutton form than is found 
in the distinctive mutton breeds. This lack of mutton 
form is evidenced in less of rotundity of body, less of 
chest width, and heart girth, and less of length of quarter 
with more length of leg. 

Sheep kept mainly for wool production are more 
hardy than those kept primarily for mutton production, 
as a rule. They can endure more privation because of 
low temperatures and short feed supplies than those kept 
mainly for mutton. The mutton-producing varieties are 
not only less hardy, but they call for a greater variety of 
food and more care. 

While the mutton breeds differ in the degree to 
which they possess prolificacy, as a rule, they are more 
prolific than breeds in which wool production is domi- 
nant. The wool-producing types seldom average more 
than 100 per cent of lambs. Some of the mutton breeds 
average much higher. 

Conditions favorable to wool production — The con- 
ditions that favor wool rather than mutton production 
are: (i) Rugged lands of but little agricultural value; 
(2) climates with vegetation dry and more or less parched 
at certain seasons ; (3) situations remote from markets ; 
and (4) areas with but few inhabitants. 

On rugged lands sheep may be grown, but not fat- 
tened in high form. On the western ranges of the United 



46 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

States and Canada sheep may be grown in fine form for 
wool production, but on these they cannot be finished. 
To secure good finish they must usually be taken to other 
areas where food is more abundant. The same is true 
even in a more marked degree of sheep grown on the 
ranges of Australia. 

Sheep will maintain themselves on vegetation dry 
and parched at certain seasons providing the grazing is 
suflicient for their needs. The grasses in such areas usu- 
ally cure while retaining their hold on the soil. They 
will produce wool, though not of the highest type, in bet- 
ter form relatively than they will produce mutton. To 
furnish mutton of the highest class the element of suc- 
culence must be abundantly present. When the range 
lands are remote from markets, wool may be transported 
much more cheaply than mutton in proportion to the rela- 
tive value of the two products. The value of a pound of 
wool is usually several times the value of a pound of 
mutton on foot ; hence the cost of marketing wool is pro- 
portionately less. This furnishes one explanation as to 
why wethers on the arable farm are more commonl}^ mar- 
keted in the lamb form, whereas on the ranges several 
clips of wool are taken l:)efore they are sold. The former 
grow mutton most cheaply while less than one year old, 
and are usually marketed cheaply, whereas the marketing 
of the latter is relatively costly. 

Where a country is but sparsely settled the demand 
for mutton is correspondingly light. The more densel}^ 
peopled the country is, other things being equal, the 
greater relatively is the demand for mutton. The more 
intense the range conditions, therefore, the more the 
profit relatively that comes from giving attention to the 
production of wool rather than to the production of mut- 
ton. 

Conditions favorable to mutton production — The 
conditions favorable to mutton production mainly are : 
(t) Lands valuable and productive; (2) climates favor- 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 4,7 

able to abundant growth ; and (3) locations not distant 
from populous centers. These conditions are, in a sense, 
the opposite of those that favor wool production as the 
leading object for which sheep are grown. 

The return from wool only, or chiefly, would not be 
sufficient from high-priced lands to justify the introduc- 
tion of sheep husbandry on such lands. The profit from 
the sheep under such conditions comes more from the 
mutton than from the wool, and it comes rather from the 
sale of lambs than from the sale of mutton in a more ma- 
ture form. The higher the productive power of such 
lands, the larger is the amount of mutton that can be 
produced from them, and the net returns will be propor- 
tionate. A part of the return will also come from the in- 
creased production resulting from such a system of hus- 
bandry. When mutton is grown on such lands, the high- 
est profits may usually be obtained from winter lambs 
(see page 255), owing to the high price for which they 
may be sold. 

Of course, mutton of the highest class cannot be pro- 
duced save in localities where food is plentiful and suc- 
culent. To produce such conditions it is essential that 
the climate, as well as the soil, shall be favorable to 
abundant production. Abundant production and succu- 
ence in the growth usually go together. The pre-emi- 
nence of Great Britain in producing mutton sheep is 
owing in no inconsiderable degree to the moist character 
of its insular climate. The same is true, though in a less 
degree, of that portion of Ontario that lies between the 
Great Lakes. The dry ranges of the western states have 
a soil possessed of great natural fertility, and yet the pro- 
duction is not abundant nor succulent because of lack of 
moisture. 

The importance of proximity to populous centers on 
the part of those who grow mutton arises from the de- 
mand for such food in the aggregate, from the high prices 
that are paid for the superior grades and from the rela- 



48 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

tively low cost of marketing the same. The great and 
constant demand lessens the possibility of great fluctua- 
tions in price such as results from a glutted market. The 
discriminations in such markets are such as to encourage 
the production of superior grades, a result that seldom 
follows in a market of subordinate importance. The low 
cost of marketing when the markets are near is just so 
far to the advantage of the grower. It also makes it pos- 
sible for him to fill orders on short notice and in a way 
suited to the needs of the purchaser. 

Crossing Merinos on the mutton breeds — It cannot 
be said that the crossing of Merinos on any of the mutton 
breeds or the grades of these has been helpful to improve- 
ment in mutton production. It does, however, add to the 
fineness of the wool and to the weight of the fleece. The 
increase in weight is due, first, to increase in density, and, 
second, to increase in the amount of yolk produced. The 
improvement thus effected in what is sometimes termed 
native sheep — that is, sheep produced by generations of 
aimless breeding — is very marked, and it may also extend 
in some instances to the form and mutton-producing 
qualities. Where wool production is the dominant object 
for which sheep are kept, such crossing or up-grading, 
as it may properly be termed, is not only legitimate, but 
is highy commendable. During the nineteenth century, 
except in the last quarter, such crossing was much prac- 
ticed. In wool-growing countries, such as Australia, it 
is very generally practiced. 

The crossing of Merino types on the mutton-produc- 
ing breeds and the grades of these has in nearly all in- 
stances resulted in decrease in size, weight, early matur- 
ing properties, desirable mutton form, propensity to fatten, 
and prolificacy. The decrease in size does not follow in 
all classes of sheep. In some instances both size and form 
are improved by the use of Merino sires, especially of the 
Delaine and Rambouillet types. Such improvement is 
the normal result when the types crossed upon are of 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 49 

low grade. More commonly, however, the mutton types 
and grades of these are of superior size and weight to 
the Merino ; hence the result, as a rule, is decrease in size 
and weight. 

As a rule the mutton types and their grades mature 
more quickly than Merinos. The difference is in some in- 
stances material. Southdown sheep will reach maturity 
in, say, two years, as pronounced as the maturity reached 
by Merinos in three years. The slower growth thus re- 
sulting adds to the cost of production, and is so far ad- 
verse to the growing of milk lambs, or even lambs that 
are to be marketed at a more advanced age. 

That the improved mutton breeds and their grades 
have a more desirable mutton form than the average of 
the Merino types cannot be gainsaid. Because of this 
they are designated the mutton breeds. The usual result, 
therefore, from crossing the Merino types on these is 
mutton form that is somewhat less desirable. Neverthe- 
less, there are some types of sheep that may be improved 
in form by the Merino cross. The influence of the Merino 
cross on the propensity to fatten is similar. Animals that 
mature slowly also fatten more slowly than quick-matur- 
ing animals ; hence the transmission that imparts slow 
maturity will also impart proportionately the tendency 
to fatten slowly. But this fact must not be pressed too 
far, since the Merinos in America have been greatly im- 
proved in their maturing and also in their flesh-producing 
properties. 

The adverse influence of the Merino cross upon pro- 
lificacy is probably more marked than the adverse in- 
fluence in the other respects mentioned. The original 
Spanish Merino was a shy breeder. This, to some extent, 
has been corrected by the superior environment and 
better food given to them in the United States. But even 
now they are less prolific than many of the mutton 
breeds, and in crossing this characteristic is measurably 
transmitted. 



50 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OK SHEEP 

Crossing Merinos on other breeds in nearly all in- 
stances improves their hardihood. The Merino is ini- 
doubtedly the most hardy of the improved breeds in 
America. This superior hardihood is partly the outcome 
of inheritance, partly the result of the impervious or re- 
sistant character of the fleece to storms, and partly the 
outcome of exposure, which their superior hardihood en- 
ables them to resist. This characteristic explains, in a 
measure at least, the great popularity of the Merino blood 
on the western ranges. It has been found that sheep pos- 
sessed of a considerable measure of Merino blood will en- 
dure exposure better than other breeds ; that their graz- 
ing properties over wide areas are superior; and that they 
can be grazed more successfully than other sheep in large 
bands. The large size of the Rambouillet and the im- 
proved mutton form of the Delaines make it practicable 
in many instances to maintain size in the types crossed 
upon, and also fair mutton qualities, in addition to the 
improvement in the fleece which results from these 
crosses. 

Crossing mutton breeds on Merinos — The American 
Merino, and especially grades of the same, furnishes ex- 
cellent material for being crossed upon by the mutton 
breeds. In the pure form the Merino is strongly resistant 
to change. This is the outcome from centuries of breed- 
ing without admixture of blood from any outside source. 
The characteristics of the Merinos thus crossed will be 
dominant in a greater degree in the progeny than the 
characteristics of the breed used in crossing. But grades, 
though strongly possessed of Merino blood, are much 
more plastic. The superior ruggedness which they 
possess transmits to the progeny that vigor which enables 
them to bear up under forced feeding. 

The crossing of Merino grades by sires of the mut- 
ton breeds results in increase in size and weight, and in 
improvement in the mutton form, and in the propensity 
to fatten readily. It also tends to remove wrinkles. The 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 5 1 

increase in size and weight is influenced by the breed 
from which the sire is chosen. Usually the greater the 
average weight and size in the breed which has furnished 
the sires, the greater will be the increase in the size and 
iveight of the resultant progeny. Such increase in even 
the first cross may carry the progeny beyond the weight 
at the usual age for marketing that is most in favor in the 
markets of to-day. The crosses most in favor at the pres- 
ent time are those made with sires of the middle wool 
breeds. Among these, those of the dark-faced or Down 
types are highest in favor, and of these the smaller breeds, 
as the Southdown and Shropshire, are the most used. The 
improvement in form is shown in the widening and firm- 
ing of the back, increasing correspondingly the rotundity 
of the body and increasing the development of chest and 
thigh. The tendency to take on flesh is so improved that 
an excellent finish is easily practicable with sheep and 
lambs of the first cross made, as above outlined. One 
cross from the mutton breeds on grade Merinos will 
greatly reduce the formation of wrinkles, so objectionable 
in mutton sheep, and in many instances it will entirely ob- 
literate them. It is peculiarly fortunate that the results 
from these crosses are so favorable. The western ranges 
are virtually stocked with Merino grade sheep. Range 
conditions are unfavorable to finishing these, with some 
exceptions. WMien too advanced in age for further use on 
the range, the ewes may be shipped to the stockyards, 
taken from thence to the farms, made to produce one 
crop of lambs and then finished in good form on such 
pasture as rape. In this way a farmer may easily pro- 
vide for himself lambs for feeding in the late autumn and 
winter. 

A cross from any of the mutton breeds will tend to 
reduce the wool of high grade Merinos in fineness, in 
density and in the quantity of yolk that it contains, and 
from all, or nearly all of them, the tendency will be to 
increase the length of the fiber and to decrease the weight 



52 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

of the fleece. The reduction in fineness and density will 
be relatively slow, and it will be measurably proportion- 
ate to the character of the fleece possessed by the breed 
used in crossing. The reduction in the yolk results from 
the law of transmission operating through the crossing of 
a breed with less yolk in the wool upon one possessed of 
more. The increase in the length of the fiber will depend 
upon relative length of the same in the breed used in 
crossing and in the grade crossed upon. A cross from 
any of the long wool breeds will lengthen the fiber in all 
instances. A similar result will follow, though less in 
degree, from some crosses made by certain of the middle 
wool breeds, as the Oxford Down and Cheviot. A cross 
of the Southdown will usually result in shortening the 
wool fiber. The Lincoln cross upon Merino grades stands 
high in favor, viewed from the standpoint of wool pro- 
duction. Sheep the progeny of such crosses are heavy 
shearers. The wool is strong in fiber and prized by man- 
ufacturers. The Shropshire cross is also a favorite, viewed 
from the standpoint of quality and yield in the wool. 

Crossing the mutton breeds upon those essentially of 
Merino lineage tends in some degree to lessen hardihood 
in the progeny, and it may also be said to detract from 
their ability to rustle for food. The less dense character 
of the fleece resulting makes them less resistant to storms. 
The decrease in the yolk still further lessens such power. 
They are also less inclined, and are indeed less able, to 
roam over large areas when seeking food. On the arable 
farm these considerations are not of moment nearly so 
great as on the range. In but few instances, and possibly 
not in any, has it been found possible on the western 
ranges to maintain sufficient stamina in sheep, the prog- 
eny of any considerable number of crosses made suc- 
cessively from using sires of any of the mutton breeds. 
After crossing thus for a time it has been found necessary 
to introduce one or more outcrosses of Merino blood to in- 
crease inherent vigor and especially storm-resistant power. 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 53 

The aim in wool production — The aim should be : 
(i) In wool production to secure wool of a desired grade 
in the largest quantity attainable; (2) to secure its even 
distribution over the body; and (3) to secure even and 
highest quality in the wool. These should be in wool 
whatever the breed or grade. 

The grade of wool that should be sought should be 
determined chiefly by the demand that exists for that 
class of wool and the capacity of the sheep to produce it. 
Each of the pure breeds produces wool of a certain kind 
that is characteristic of the breed. It would not be wise 
to seek to transform the character of that wool into 
something essentially different. Much time would be 
called for to make such change as would have to be made 
through selection. But when the sheep are not purely 
bred, then it may be essentially proper to seek such mod- 
ification, even though sires from another breed should be 
used in making it. For instance, when fine wool was very 
dear as compared with coarse wool, the use of Merino 
sires was not only legitimate but commendable, and when 
the price so changed that medium and coarse wools sold 
virtually as high as fine wools, the use of sires from the 
breeds that produced such wool was justifiable, and all 
the more so when mutton quality in the sheep became 
relatively more important. 

Each pure breed of sheep has a certain standard of 
wool characteristic of the breed. This standard is not 
always adhered to by the breeders. For instance, Shrop- 
shire sheep come into the show ring possessed of wool 
more or less open and possessed of characteristics per- 
taining to the Oxford Down fleece. Such wool is usually 
long, and when present makes the animal appear larger. 
The judge in the show ring should discourage the pro- 
duction of wool in any breed at variance with the stand- 
ard for the breed. 

The demand for wool of a certain grade varies with 
change in the fashions. Such variation may cover a 



54 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

period of years ; hence to profit by such change it may be 
necessary to change the breed from which sires are 
chosen. Such change, however, should be modified by 
the effect that it will have on mutton production when 
that is an important consideration. Such change when 
sought should come through the process of upgrading 
rather than that of promiscuous crossing. That is, it 
should come by choosing the successive sires from one 
breed. Having decided upon the grade of wool sought, 
every reasonable effort should be made to secure it in the 
largest quantity attainable. 

The even distribution of wool over the body varies 
somewhat in breeds, and it varies much in individuals of 
the breed. Such distribution is secured in a high degree 
in the various Merino types, in Shropshires among middle 
wool breeds, and in Lincolns among long wool breeds. 
Formerly Southdowns and Leicesters were occasionally 
bare in the underline, especially as the age advanced, but 
this defect in wool covering is being largely corrected in 
breeding. 

The degree of the wool covering on the head and legs 
is determined, first, by the breed, and second by the relative 
importance attached to such covering. Viewed as an indica- 
tion of correct breeding it is important, but viewed from 
the standpoint of fancy, it has but little significance. When 
it is carried to the extent of making a fancy point of 
greater moment than a point of much practical impor- 
tance, then it becomes decidedly adverse to production 
of the highest type. 

Absolute evenness in the quality of the wool that 
covers the sheep is unattainable. It is unattainable in 
relation to length, to density and to the size of the fiber. 
The wool on the underline and certain other parts of the 
frame is never so long as on the sides and back. The 
density of the wool is always greater, for instance, on the 
back than on certain parts of the underline. The size of 
the fiber is also usually greater on the outer thighs than 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 55 

on the shoulders or side. But the difference in these 
respects is more marked in certain of the breeds, and in 
all or nearly all of them it is capable of still further reduc- 
tion. While uniformity in all these respects is important, 
uniformity in length is of especial importance. It is 
found more complete in the fine wool than in the coarse 
wool types. 

Usually the first quality of wool is obtained along 
the sides of the sheep from the hip to the shoulder and 
including a part of both. The second quality is found on 
the back from the poll to the rumps, much the poorest 
grade in this class being on the rumps. The third quality 
is found on the throat, forearm, belly, thighs, legs and 
head. These divisions are very general, the wool in each 
of them being graded by further subdivision. (See page 
70.) 

To secure highest quality in wool calls into exercise 
a high degree of skill in breeding. With such an end in 
view, it involves continued selection of the most careful 
kind, and it necessitates furnishing food and protection 
adapted to the end sought. Improvement in wool pro- 
duction is much more difficult of attainment and calls for 
a much longer time to efifect it than improvement in mut- 
ton production. 

The aim in mutton production — The chief aim in 
mutton production should be: (i) To secure the most 
flesh compatible with normal size ; (2) the highest de- 
velopment in the best parts ; (3) highest quality in the 
mutton production ; and (4) to meet the demands which 
the markets call for. To accomplish these ends in a 
marked degree is not incompatible with securing wool 
also abundant in quantity and of high quality. 

Each breed or grade has its own standard of size. 
This standard is not inflexible. It is modified by food 
conditions. Thus the standard of size for sheep that are 
grown chiefly on alfalfa is higher than the standard for 
the same on the downs of southern England. In other 



56 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

words, the sheep grown on the former will naturally 
grow to a larger size than sheep grown on the latter. But 
size without aptitude to fatten is not only not helpful, but 
it may be harmful ; hence the aim should be, when look- 
ing for mutton, to breed sheep that may be made to carry 
a large proportion of mutton relatively to the size of the 
carcass. Size more than normal in the flock is frequently, 
though not always, associated with roughness and a lack 
of highest fleshing capacity. 

High development in the best parts is greatly impor- 
tant in the sheep grown for mutton. What is termed the 
saddle, the loin and the leg of mutton include the most 
valuable cuts. The leg of mutton — that is, the lower part 
of the hind quarter — is much prized; hence the impor- 
tance of seeking much development in the same. Good 
development in the entire back is greatly important, but 
it is especially so on the loin, because of the value of the 
cuts produced there. High quality in the mutton pro- 
dticed is the outcome of breeding, of the foods fed, and of 
the blending of these foods. That some breeds have 
higher adaptation than others, viewed from the stand- 
point of quantity and quality, cannot be gainsaid. Some 
breeds have better development of the valuable parts of 
the carcass than others, and some produce meat of more 
perfect blending than others. When seeking improve- 
ment in mutton qualities through grading, therefore, it is 
a question of much practical moment as to which breed 
the sires shall be chosen from. Nevertheless, the individ- 
uality of the animals in the breed is more important rela- 
tively than the breed. 

The influence of food on the quality of the mutton 
is very marked. From grasses that are lacking in succu- 
ence the same high quality of mutton cannot be produced 
as from grasses equal in nutriment and possessed of am- 
ple succulence. Nor can mutton of the same fine texture 
be made from coarse herbage as from that which is fine. 
Neither can so high a grade of mutton be made, as a rule. 



SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 57 

on pasture or dry fodders only as on these foods, sup- 
plemented by grain. The exceptions include such graz- 
ing as is furnished by rape and field roots. 

The proper blending of the foods has a marked in- 
fluence on the quality of the mutton. Dry fodders and 
grain only will furnish mutton of high quality viewed 
from the standpoint of high finish in the carcass, but 
these will not furnish meat so juicy as when some succu- 
lent food is fed. To make proper provision for such 
succulent food may necessitate much forethought and 
may call for no little effort to secure them, and the de- 
termination of the quantities to be fed may call for the 
exercise of experience and skill, but the fact remains that 
no flockmaster is so well equipped for wintering a flock 
or for finishing the same as the one who has on hand an 
ample store of succulent food. 

In growing mutton the demands of the market can- 
not be ignored. It is not enough that the grower of mut- 
ton shall produce a good article. To bring the best price 
it must meet the conditions of the market demands. It 
must at least approximate the demands of the market in 
the size and weight of carcass and in the finish of the 
same. This finds easy illustration in the growing and 
marketing of milk lambs. The largest price is paid for 
the lambs which are possessed of a certain weight or 
which approximate the same and which have high finish. 
Lambs of equal weight but of less finish will be propor- 
tionately discounted, and the same is true of lambs of 
higher weight though possessed of equal finish. Sim- 
ilar illustrations could be furnished from the other 
classes of sheep. 



CHAPTER IV 
WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 

Chapter IV treats of the following phases of this 
question : (i) What is meant by wool; (2) the discussion 
of fiber in wool; (3) the discussion of yolk in wool; (4) 
how wools are classified; (5) short, intermediate and long 
wools; (6) superfine, fine, intermediate and coarse wools; 
(7) carding and combing wools; and (8) wool as distrib- 
uted over the body. 

What is meant by wool — Strictly speaking, as the 
term is ordinarily used, wool is the covering or fleece of 
the sheep. But the use of the term has been extended so 
as to include: (i) The heavy fleece of the alpaca, vicuna, 
and other species of the llama ; (2) the hair of the Angora, 
Cashmere and other breeds of the goat; (3) several kinds 
of fur from certain fur-bearing animals ; and (4) the soft 
down from the underline of the camel. In one sense, 
therefore, it is simply hair of a soft, pliable and elastic 
character, more or less spiral and wavy in form. The de- 
gree in which these characteristics are present varies 
greatly in the different breeds. It would seem correct 
to say that softness, pliability and elasticity are possessed 
in the highest degree by the fine wool breeds, in a less 
degree by the middle wool breeds and in a still less de- 
gree by the coarse wool breeds. The spiral form of fiber 
occurs to the greatest extent in some of the coarse wool 
breeds and the wavy or crimpy form in the fine wool 
breeds. Many breeds of sheep, especially those that are 
neglected, are covered with hair underneath, which may 
properly be classed as wool. The absence of hair in the 
improved breeds is chiefly owing to improvements ef- 
fected through selection and breeding. No sooner are 
sheep neglected, exposed and subjected to hard condi- 



WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 59 

tions, than a tendency to reversion sets in. The fiber be- 
comes shorter, straighter and coarser, until in some in- 
stances it closely resembles hair. 

Wool may be distinguished from hair, and in fact 
from all vegetable fibers, by the corrugated character of 
the fibers and by its property of felting. The latter is the 
outcome of the epithelial scales which overlap each other 
along the course of the fibers. Other distinctions are as 
follows: (i) Wool is usually possessed of more staple 
than hair; (2) it is more pliable, softer and more elastic; 
(3) it is more dense than hair, the number of wool fibers 
being much greater on a given surface than the number of 
hairs on the same; (4) all wools are possessed of more or 
less crimp and curve or wave, while hair is straight, or but 
slightly wavy. It is also stronger than wool. This com- 
parison is made between sheep and the various quadru- 
peds kept on the farm other than sheep. It will not hold 
good in every particular when contrasted with the cover- 
ing of some of the fur-bearing animals. The exact point 
where the distinctions come in between wool and hair 
is not in all instances easily determined. 

Mohair and Cashmere wool are prominent among the 
hairlike products that have attained to much prominence 
in the manufacture of clothing. The former is a lustrous 
wool, obtained from the Angora goat. It is of good length, 
pure white in color, has a high luster, and is fine and 
wavy. It is used in making astrakhans, velvets, fine 
wraps and half-silk goods. The latter is the fine and ex- 
tremely soft white or gray fur of the Cashmere goat bred 
in Thibet. The outer covering consists of long tufts of 
hair, and underneath it is the Cashmere wool of com- 
merce. It is a soft downy wool of a brownish gray 
tint, and has a fine silky fiber. It is used in making the 
costly Oriental shawls and the finest wraps. 

The contrast between the covering of the improved 
and unimproved breeds is very great. In the latter, the 
wool fibers are shorter and less dense, as a rule. They 



60 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

fall short of the standard of good wool in all its essen- 
tial characteristics. Especially is this true in the less 
degree of the strength of fiber in the wool and the lack 
of uniformity in the strength of the same. The contrast 
is even more marked in the unevenness of the length of 
the wool as distributed over the body and in the varia- 
tions in the quality of the same. In the latter sense these 
variations are so marked that the covering on some parts 
of the body is wool, and on other parts of the same it 
bears a closer resemblance to hair. In the improved 
breeds, hair is almost entirely wanting, save on the legs 
and head, and the amount of this covering on the parts 
named differs much in the dift"erent breeds. 

Discussion of fiber in wool — Filler in wool means 
each distinct filament of which the fieece — that is, the 
covering- of the sheep — is composed. Each fiber is usually 
essentially circular in form, more or less crimped or 
waved, and in many instances is larger at the extremity 
and near the base than in the center of the fiber. This 
is not true, however, of Merino wool of the first grade. 
When grown in temperate climates the fibers are essen- 
tially circular in form, but when grown in a hot climate 
they incline to a fiattish oval. Crimp means deviation 
from straight growth in the wool fibers (see page 78). In 
some instances it takes the form of folding, as it were, of 
the fiber on itself, and in other instances a wavy or spiral 
character of growth. Climates unduly cold may eliminate 
crimp, and those unduly hot may tend to make it exces- 
sive. The greater size of the diameter at the base and 
toward the tips of the wool fibers arises probably from the 
less friction in the fibers at these points. 

When the animal is healthy and thrifty, the appear- 
ance of the fiber is brilliant. It has a shining, glistening 
appearance when the wool is parted on any part of the 
body of the sheep. This bright lustrous appearance is 
caused by the yolk, which, exuding from the glands of the 
skin moves on toward the tips of the hairs and keeps them 



WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 6l 

oiled, as it were, along their entire lengths. The color of 
the fiber is usually a pure white, but in some instances it 
is tinted with yellow shades, as when the yolk is present 
in large quantities. When sheep are out of condition 
the wool is dull and lusterless. 

In size the wool fibers vary greatly. These varia- 
tions are in a marked degree the outcome of breeding, 
but they are also influenced by climate and food. The 
variations in length run all the way from less than 2 
inches to 20 inches. The variations in the diameter of the 
fiber are even greater. They run all the way from 
i-3,oooth of an inch in the very finest of the merino types 
to i-275th of an inch in the coarsest Algerian sheep. 

Each wool fiber is composed of two parts, known as 
the stem or shaft and the root or bulb, out of which the 
stem rises, and on which it is dependent for its sustenance. 
The bulb or root imbedded in the derma is implanted in a 
gland known as the hair follicle. It is simply an enlarge- 
ment which fits somewhat socket-like into the fiber sack 
which incases it. It rests upon a small bulb in the bot- 
tom of the fiber sack. This small sack is at once the 
source of and the support of the fiber. The hair follicle 
is formed of the epidermis and the dermis of the sheep's 
skin. It penetrates the body only for a short distance. 
The blood vessels, in minute and numerous branches, are 
distributed over the walls of the follicle. The nourish- 
ment thus furnished is molded into the structure of the 
fiber. Should a fiber be plucked out, a new one may be 
produced to take its place. The hair or wool follicle is 
to be carefully distinguished from the follicle which pro- 
duces perspiration and that from which the yolk exudes. 

The shaft is that portion of the fiber which rises up 
from the root bulb of the same, and continuing to grow 
outward with other fibers, forms the flleece of the sheep. 
All the elements of growth are furnished by the hair germ, 
which rises into the hair bulb. It is not the function of 
the yolk to furnish nutriment to the fiber. 



62 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Each wool fiber is made up of three layers or por- 
tions. These are known respectively as the epidermis, 
the cortical substance and the medullary substance. The 
epidermis or outer layer, which is very thin, embraces 
a vast number of imbricated scales, lying on one another. 
These are formed by the growth of cells, which, as they 
grow, assume the form of scales, and in a healthy sheep 
they have a high luster. The new portion pushes out the 
old. The scales overlap and thus constitute the felting 
properties of the wool. They also tend to keep dirt from 
entering the fleece. The cortical substance, or intermedi- 
ate layer, is fibrous in character and forms two-thirds 
of the substance of each fiber, and also contains the mat- 
ter which gives color to the wool. The medullary sub- 
stance, or inner layer, is sometimes spoken of as the marrow 
of the fiber. A majority of the fibers have the marrow hol- 
low through much of their length. 

Discussion of yolk in wool — Yolk (see page 74) is an 
alkaline soapy substance secreted from the glands of the 
skin. The yolk follicle empties into the wool follicle near 
the mouth of the latter, and extending therefrom it lubri- 
cates the fibers to their outer extremities. It also lubri- 
cates the skin. 

The chief function of yolk in wool is to prevent the 
fibers from felting together and to prevent them from 
wearing by friction ; but it also tends to protect the fleece 
from the accumulation of foreign substances within it. 
The less wear in the fibers that are well supplied with 
yolk accounts in part at least for the greater strength 
of fiber in wools well supplied with the same. The pro- 
tection thus furnished from rain acts similarly. The 
wool is protected from foreign substances, in part at least, 
by the outward movement of the yolk. The edges of the 
scales on the fiber-like little barbs point toward the tip of 
the fiber, and, therefore, carry the yolk outward along 
with more or less substances that may have found their 
way into the fleece. Those wools which possess the 



WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 63 

greatest number of imbrications to the square inch require 
the greatest amount of yolk. Such is the wool of the 
Merino, with its high felting properties. Yolk is liquid 
when it exudes from the yolk glands, and in some breeds 
it remains so ; but in others it turns into gummy or waxy 
orange-yellow scales, which adhere to the wool. Even 
when it thus accumulates it does not materially weaken 
the strength of the fibers. 

The chief of the influences that affect yolk in wool 
are food, protection and breeding. The relation between 
liberal feeding and the plentiful production of yolk is of 
the closest nature. Food that promotes thrift also tends 
to increase the amount of yolk in the wool. The rela- 
tion between food and yolk is so intimate that the differ- 
ence in the amount of the same and the difference in the 
strength of the wool resulting will be apparent on differ- 
ent soils separated only by a river bed. Protection, as by 
housing when rain storms prevail and by blanketing un- 
der certain conditions, not only tends to keep the yolk in 
condition, but it also tends to increase in its accumulation. 
The quantity of yolk in wool may be increased or de- 
creased through transmission in breeding. Such trans- 
mission may be looked for when breeding pure breds or 
grades. 

The amount of yolk that is desirable and the condi- 
tions in which it is found are by no means unimportant. 
With reference to the former, however, there is not en- 
tire agreement. Yolk is seldom present in excess as long 
as it remains in the liquefied form, and colorless or nearly 
so, in the unshorn fleece. It is usually in excess when it 
forms dry or pasty masses in the wool, nor is it in a de- 
sirable condition w^hen exposure to rain washes it down 
so as to form a pasty, gluey mass in the fleece. Yolk is 
deficient in wool when the latter lacks softness and 
pliancy to the touch and when it lacks brilliancy of luster 
when the fleece is opened out. 



64 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Of course, the amount of yolk required varies with 
the class of wool. (See page 48.) 

How wools are classified — Wools are classified: (i) 
On the basis of length, (2) on the basis of diameter in the 
fiber, and (3) on the basis of adaptation to use. A clearly 
definite and accurate classification in either respect is 
scarcely possible, owing to the diif erence found in wool of 
the same breed, to the constant changes that result from 
crossing and grading, and to the modifications which re- 
sult from time to time from the introduction of improved 
machinery in the manufacture of the wool. Short wools 
are sometimes classified as carding and long wools as 
combing, but because of the changes referred to, the dis- 
tinctions between carding and combing wools have been 
much modified during recent decades. 

Based on the standard of length, wool from the dif- 
ferent pure breeds found in America may be classed as 
short, intermediate and long, but in the process of manu- 
facture, they are usually known as short and long. The 
American Merino and the Southdown breeds produce 
short wool. The Leicester, Cotswold and Lincoln breeds 
produce long wool. The other breeds produce wool that, 
strictly speaking, is of intermediate length, but which 
usually comes under the classification of combing wool. 
The length of the wool of this class differs considerably. 
The Oxford Down breed produces the longest wool in the 
intermediate class. The wool produced by some of the 
breeds is so nearly alike in length that it is scarcely pos- 
sible to decide as to which is the longer. 

On the basis of diameter in the fiber, wool is classi- 
fied as superfine, fine, medium and coarse. Superfine 
wools are those of the very finest character, as, for in- 
stance, the best of the Saxony and Merino grades. Fine 
wools are chiefly furnished by the Merino in its various 
branches, as the American Merino, the Delaine and the 
Rambouillet, and also by high grades of these breeds. 
Medium wools usually include those obtained from the 



WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 65 

various Down breeds — the Tunis, the Dorsets and the 
Cheviots — also from grades of these. Coarse wools are ob- 
tained from the long wooled breeds and from the West 
Highland sheep and grades of all these breeds. 

In the order of fineness it would be correct to say that 
of three fine wool breeds the American Merino produces 
the finest grade, the Delaine coming next in fineness, and 
the Rambouillet third, but the difference in this respect 
is not a wide one. It would be at least approximately 
correct to say that in the order of fineness in medium wool, 
the pure breeds in America rank as follows, beginning 
with the finest : Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, 
Cheviot, Suffolk Down, Hampshire Down and Oxford 
Down. The coarse wooled breeds, beginning with the 
finest wool, will rank as follows: Leicester, Lincoln, Cots- 
wold and West Highland. 

Wool is further classified on the basis of use. On 
this basis it may be divided into three great classes. 
These are: (i) Carding wools, which are used for mak- 
ing garments for ordinary wear, and which are also very 
commonly classified as clothing wools. These are used 
mainly as broadcloths and the thicker and heavier woolen 
cloths. (2) Combing wools, which, generally speaking, 
are made into garments calling for superior softness, 
lightness and strength of wear. In the finer sorts they 
are much used for making garments that are much prized 
and worn by women. The better class of these are known 
as delaines (see page 70). (3) Carpet and knitting wools. 
These are also combing wools, but of a class far different 
from the delaines. They include the cheapest, coarsest 
and harshest sorts of wool. They approach more nearly 
to hair than other wools. These wools are now virtually 
all imported. The only staple of this class now grown in 
the United States comes from the original Mexican sheep 
of the southwest. 

Short, intermediate and long wools — The length of 
wool ordinarily runs all the way from, say less than 2 



66 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

inches, to more than 20 inches. The classification based 
on length is not accurately defined. In a general way it 
may be said short wools are not more than 2^ inches 
long. They are obtained from the Saxony and Silesian 
breeds and from some types of the Merino. For general 
qualities and fineness of fiber these wools are unexcelled. 
The fiber is not only short, but it is also fine and strong 
and elastic, and is possessed of good felting qualities. It 
is used chiefly in the manufacture of clothes where much 
milling is required. Much milling is a process by which 
the fibers are condensed, as it were, so as to make the 
clothes stronger and firmer. It is made into superfine and 
dress-faced fabrics of relatively high value. 

Intermediate wool is more than 2^ inches long and 
not more than say 5 inches. It includes all that class 
known as delaines, which means fine combing wools from 
pure and grade Merinos that exceed say 23/2 inches in 
length. These are amongst the most valuable of the 
combing wools. (See page 70.) It also includes the 
dark-faced breeds in America, to which may be added the 
Dorsets, the Tunis and the Cheviots. The wool of these 
is made into many kinds of fabrics. 

The long wools are more than 5 inches in length, and 
they may be as much as 20 inches. They are, of course, 
combing wools, and they are made into many fabrics, 
strong and of good wearing properties, but lacking in the 
finish and fineness of the garments made from the other 
wools. 

Superfine, fine, intermediate and coarse wools — The 
classification of wool on the basis of diameter in the fiber 
is difiicult, owing (i) to the influence of the general char- 
acter of the food on the fiber, (2) of the general character 
of the climate, and (3) to individuality in the members of 
the flock. Food, rich and abundant, strengthens the fiber 
more than it afi^ects the diameter, but it influences the lat- 
ter also in the direction of increase. Warm climates tend 
to increase in the diameter of wool fibers, but to decrease 



WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 6/ 

in their number, and the reverse of this is true of climates 
cool to cold. These influences, however, act with measur- 
able slowness. Individuals in the flock may differ consid- 
erably from one another in the degree of the fineness of 
the fiber. This, however, should not be a serious hin- 
drance to present classification, although by selection in 
breeding it may in time considerably modify the classifi- 
cation, by improving it. 

Classification on the basis of diameter, as previously 
intimated, divides wool into superfine, fine, intermediate 
and coarse. But the line of change between these is not 
absolutely and unchangeably settled, some of the reasons 
for which are given above. 

It can scarcely be said that wools classed as super- 
fine are produced to any considerable extent in America. 
These are furnished largely by the Saxony and Silesian 
breeds, which are not now and never have been numer- 
ous in this country. It is true, nevertheless, that some 
of the Merino wools produced in this country have 
equaled in fineness the finest of the wools produced by 
the breeds named. The finest Saxony and Silesian wools 
have a diameter of fiber running from say i-2,oooth to 
i-i,6ooth of an inch. Lamb's wool is the finest, and next 
in fineness is the clip taken from sheep at one year. The 
former is taken when the lambs are about six months old. 
Superfine wools are made into garments light, soft and of 
relatively high values. 

The fine wool breeds in America include all the vari- 
ous types of the American Merino, pure and high grade, 
the Delaine in its various families, and the Rambouillet. 
These are named in order of fineness, beginning with the 
finest, but the wool furnished by individual animals may 
not be in entire agreement with this classification. The 
fiber in the Merino, with some individual exceptions in 
which the wool is finer, runs from say i-i, Sooth of an inch 
to i-i, 400th and in some instances it is even greater. The 
Delaine and Rambouillet types produce wool not much 



68 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

less fine. High grade Merinos also produce wool that is 
quite fine. The Australian Merino in the best grades is 
but little behind the American Merino. The finer of 
these wools are largely made into light and soft fabrics 
for woman's wear and the medium into worsted and de- 
laine goods. 

The intermediate wools produced in this country, as 
previously intimated, come from the following breeds, 
which are named in the order of their fineness, beginning 
with the finest: Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, 
Cheviot, Suffolk, Hampshire and Oxford. This classifi- 
cation may be challenged, but it is doubtful if it can be 
improved upon at the present time. The finest of these 
is the Southdown, the fibers of which have a diameter of 
about i-iiooth of an inch. These wools, known as cloth- 
ing wools, are made into a great variety of clothes, a 
majority of which are for everyday wear. They also fur- 
nish blankets. 

The coarse wools produced in this country come from 
the following breeds, named in the order of their fineness, 
beginning with the finest: Leicester, Lincoln, Cotswold 
and Black Faced Highland. These are used for making 
garments coarse of texture, but that will endure much 
wear. Wools still coarser than some of the above come 
from Peru, Chile, Russia, Turkey, Greece and China. 
These are made into carpets and the coarsest kinds of 
goods, also into knitting yarn. 

Carding and combing wools — From the standpoint of 
the manufacturer, all wools are classified as carding or 
combing. The former seldom exceed 2 to 4 inches in 
length, the latter include wools that are longer. But 
these distinctions are being modified by the French 
methods of spinning, which comb and spin even wools 
that are short. 

Carding wools are sometimes called felting wools. 
Felting is the amalgamation or matting of the fibers. The 
small toothlike projections of one fiber catch into those 



WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 69 

of another adjacent thereto, and become entangled or in- 
terlocked. The deeper the scales fit into one another, the 
closer is the structure of the thread. The process of inter- 
locking is aided by the curly nature of the fiber, which 
inclines it to twist around any adjacent object. It is fur- 
ther aided by what is termed the milling process. During 
this process pressure is applied to it in the presence of 
some lubricant, such as soap and warm water. The felt- 
ing process is accompanied by shrinkage of a kind that 
lessens the area covered by the cloth, but adds to its 
thickness. 

The felting value of wool is largely determined by the 
number of the serrations per inch in the fiber and by the 
freedom with which the upper edge of the side projects 
from the fiber. The process known as carbonization 
opens out the scales and thereby increases felting power 
in the wool. A similar result follows the application of 
lime or acid to the wool on pelts. The serrations are the 
most numerous and the most clearly defined in wool of 
the various Merino types. These serrations vary greatly 
in the different wools. More commonly the larger and 
coarser the wool, the fewer are the number of the serra- 
tions. Merino wools have been grown in Vermont with 
3.000 serrations to the inch, but the average is somewhat 
fewer than 2,000. The best Saxony wools contain 2,800 
to the inch and the best Australian, 2,400. Southdown 
wool contains about 2,000, Leicester wool 1,800 and com- 
mon domestic wool about 1,200. In some of the inferior 
wools the number is sometimes less than 500. These 
short-stapled carding wools are made into broadcloths, 
and the thicker sorts of woolen clothing. They are also 
used for the production of woolen yarns. 

Combing wools are prepared for spinning by a proc- 
ess known as combing. In this process the fibers are 
made to lay parallel with one another preparatory to 
spinning them into thread, while in carding wools they 
become inextricabJy intermixed. As previously shown, 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 



these virtually embrace all wools from a few inches and 
upward in length, and they are combed to be made into 
coarse worsted yarns. One class of these is known as 
the delaine, and the other as carpet and knitting wools. 
The latter are coarse, long and strong. 

Delaine wools are fine combing wools with staple of 
medium length. They come between the short-stapled 
carding wools and the longer and coarser types of comb- 
ing wool. They virtually include all combing wools that 
contain much Merino blood. They are first carded and 
then combed for the production of fine worsted yarns for 

ladies' dress goods, light 
and soft and of superior 
excellence. 

Homemade rugs are 
sometimes made from 
the skins of sheep and 
lambs. The skins for 
such use should be re- 
moved with much care, 
so that they will be free 
from cuts and from 
adherent fiesh. It is 
then washed in warm 
water with salt and alum dissolved in it of equal propor- 
tions. It is then wrung and spread on a table and 
stretched and scraped smooth. It is next sprinkled with 
finely powdered salt and alum and left for two weeks. 
Then follows washing in warm water with soft soap, 
added, wringing, stretching and pulling until it is soft 
and pliable, after which it is dried. The stretching and 
pulling are continued until the skins are quite dry, with 
a view to keep them soft. Such skins make admirable 
rugs for a carriage or for house wear, and they may be 
dyed to suit the fancy. 

Wool as distributed over the body — The quality of 
the wool varies greatly on diiYerent parts of the body in 




FIG. 4— WOOL AS CLASSIFIED ON THE 
SHEEP 



WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 7 1 

the same animal. Before being milled it is sorted or 
graded — that is, divided into various classes according to 
its quality — in order that each grade may be made into 
that class of goods for which it is best suited. What may 
be termed extreme grading divides the wool into four- 
teen classes, as shown in Fig. 4. In Nos. i and 2 — that 
is, on the shoulder and side — the best grades of wool are 
found. The wool in No. 2 is slightly stronger and coarser 
than in No. i, otherwise the quality is about the same. 
In both it is of relatively good length and strength of 
staple and is soft and uniform. In Nos. 3, 4 and 5, what 
may be termed second choice wool is found. In all of 
these the staple is relatively short and the quality lowers 
slightly in the order given. In No. 6 is produced wool on 
the back and loin that may be given third place. In Nos. 
7, 8 and 9 the wool is relatively long and strong. No. 8, 
sometimes called the breech, furnishes the coarsest wool 
of the entire fleece. In No. 10 it is short and more or less 
dirty. In No. 11 it is short and relatively fine. In No. 12 
the short wool is usually damaged some by rubbing. In 
Nos. 13 and 14 it is of but little value. In each gradation 
there is some peculiarity that makes it different from the 
others. 

Grading the fleece as above outlined is not univer- 
sally adhered to. Another system, outlined in the Inter- 
national Library of Technology, is now more generally in 
favor apparently than that given above. It grades wool 
on dififerent parts of the fleece by the following gradation, 
each successive grading being less valuable than the pre- 
ceding: (i) Shoulders and sides; (2) lower part of the 
body; (3) loin and back; (4) upper part of legs; (5) 
upper portion of the neck ; (6) central part of the back ; 
(7) the belly; (8) the root of the tail sometimes called 
the rumps; (9) the lower part of the legs; (10) the head, 
throat and chest, the wool on these having practically the 
same characteristics; and (11) the shins or shank. 

A third division of the qualities of wool, and which 



72 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 



also is possessed of much merit, is shown in Fig, 5. The 
best wool — that is, the finest and most evenly grown — is 
always found on the shoulders, i, 
I. Not infrequently this high 
quality wool shades into 2, 2, 5 
and 6, In the wool trade these 
are known as picklock and prime. 
When the wool at 4, shorter than 
I, I, is free from colored hairs, it 
is super-excellent. The wool at 
3, 3 is shorter and less closely 
grown than i, i. The quality of 
6 is not much below that of 2, 2, 
into which it shades, and also 
which it resembles. For many 
uses the wool at i, i, 2, 2, 5 and 

FIG. 5— THE SHORN FLEECE ^ fol^pn tntrptlipr RartwnrH 

AS FREQUENTLY CLASSIFIED ^ are taKcu togctner. uacKwara 

from 6, the wool becomes increas- 
ingly coarse, the best being found at 7, 7. At 8, 9 and 9 
the coarsest wool is found, that at 8 being the coarsest. 
The wool grows in large locks of coarse hair and can only 
be used for coarse yarns. 




CHAPTER V 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 

The discussion in Chapter V treats of the following 
phases of the various qualities and characters that per- 
tain to wool: (i) The leading characteristics of wool; 
(2) strength of fiber; (3) length of staple; (4) thickness 
or density; (5) crimp or curl; (6) softness or pliancy; 
(7) color in the staple; (8) uniformity in fleece; (9) style 
or quality ; (10) closure of fleece; (11) felting; (12) cloud- 
iness; (13) stripy or watery wool; (14) break or joint; 
(15) kemp or jar; (16) toppiness, broad toppiness, black 
top and clots; and (17) influences from environment that 
are hurtful. The discussion of these must of necessity be 
brief. 

Leading characteristics of wool — The more important 
of the essential qualities in good wool are: (i) Strength 
of fiber; (2) length of staple; (3) thickness or density; 
(4) crimp or curl; (5) softness or pliancy; (6) color in 
staple ; (7) uniformity in fleece ; (8) style or quality ; and 
(9) closure of fleece. The different degrees in which these 
characters are possessed is in some instances very 
marked. Prominent among the defects in wool are felt- 
ing of the fleece in whole or in part, cloudiness or dis- 
coloration, a stripy condition, break or joint, kemp or jar 
and toppiness, broad toppiness, black top and clots. For 
the discussion of these see p. 84. 

In addition to the defects in wool from the sources 
named above, there are certain baneful influences which 
result from environment that are hurtful to wool. These 
are dwelt upon later (see p. 91). Like the defects in 
wool enumerated above, they are all preventable where 
the management is what it ought to be. For the discus- 
sion of these see pp. 84-92. 

73 



74 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Strength of fiber in wool — Strength of fiber in wool 
means the ability which it has throughout its entire 
length to resist the force of distention. The true measure 
of the strength of fiber is the strength of its weakest part. 
It will not avail to have fiber strong through much of its 
length when weak through any part of the same. It is 
one of the most useful and important qualities in wool, as 
on the strength of the fiber depends in a large measure 
the value of wool for manufacturing uses. 

Among the important indications of strength of fiber 
are, first, a bright glistening appearance in the wool ; sec- 
ond, an abundance of oil or yolk in the same ; and third, 
uniformity in the size of the fiber. The glistening ap- 
pearance is largely the outcome of an abundance of yolk 
in the wool, but this lustrous appearance is also accentu- 
ated by the reflection of scales that surround the fiber. 
Its presence, however, is not an absolute guaranty of 
strength throughout the entire length of the fiber, for 
there may have been periods during the growth of the 
fiber, when an abundance of yolk was not present, a con- 
dition that would be adverse to strength of fiber at such 
times. During any periods when yolk is not adequately 
present, there is more or less wear in the fibers through 
friction. Insufificient nutrition which causes an insuffi- 
ciency of yolk also causes weak fiber through lack of food 
supplied to the same. It lacks strength, therefore, from 
lack of food and through excessive friction. Lack of uni- 
formity in the size of the fiber may be so marked that in 
some instances it is apparent to the eye unaided. In other 
instances it can only be detected with a microscope. It is 
of great importance in wool, as when weak beyond a cer- 
tain degree, it breaks during certain of the processes of 
manufacture. 

Since strength of fiber is the outcome of nourishment 
and of lubrication, and since both are produced by food, 
it becomes apparent that if the fiber is to be uniform in 
size and strength, the food fed should be suitable and am- 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 75 

pie during the entire period covered by the growth of the 
fiber. Should the nourishment be insufficient at any time 
to the needs of the animal, the wool, from lack of nourish- 
ment, will not develop properly at such a time. It will 
lack size and strength of fiber, proportioned to the con- 
tinuance of the period during which the nourishment was 
insufficient and to the extent to which it was lacking. 
Other conditions that may lower stamina in sheep, as un- 
due exposure, annoyance beyond a certain degree from 
insect pests and disease, will weaken the fiber. The im- 
portance of what may be termed evenness of condition in 
sheep cannot be over-estimated in its relation to uni- 
formity of strength of fiber in the wool. This property 
may also be influenced in some slight degree by inherit- 
ance. Such influence, however, if it exists, is of small im- 
portance compared with the influences already stated. 

Length of staple in wool — Length of staple in wool 
means simply length of the wool fibers. It has an im- 
portant bearing, first, on the weight of the fleece ; second, 
on the profit from the same, as the result of the former; 
and third, on the character of the goods manufactured. 
Difference in length may take wool from the carding into 
the combing class in the same breed of sheep. 

The variations in the length of the staple in wool are 
very great. In some instances it has attained a length 
of i8 to 20 inches as the result of one year's growth ; in 
other instances the growth is even less than an inch. The 
variations between these extremes are of all lengths. It 
would be approximately correct to say that short wools 
are less than 3 inches long, intermediate wools are some- 
where between, say 3 and 5 or 6 inches. 

Variations in length of staple in wools are caused by 
such influences as breed, food, grade and age. Each 
breed has a standard of length written or unwritten, usu- 
ally the latter. This standard is not so inflexible that it 
cannot be modified. The standard of length, for instance, 
is longer in the American than in the Spanish Merino; in 



76 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

the Delaine than in the American Merino; and in the 
Rambouillet than in the Delaine Merino. Notwithstand- 
ing that the three breeds named last have been evolved 
from the first. 

The influence of food on the length of staple is consid- 
erable. It is probably less, however, than the influence of 
breed and of selection in breeding. Generous feeding 
makes modification jn the length of the wool fibers easier 
in the direction of increase, but it would seem correct to 
say that the influence of food is much greater on the diam- 
eter of the wool fibers than on the length of the staple. 

The influence from grade — that is, from cross breed- 
ing and grading on the length of the staple — is very 
marked in many instances. It is marked in proportion to 
the contrast between the length of the staple in the 
breeds crossed. The Cotswold and Lincoln crosses in- 
variably lengthen the staple in wool when crossed upon 
the other breeds. The Southdown cross shortens the 
same in nearly all breeds. This influence on the length 
of staple is much greater than that of the other influences 
named. 

The influence of age on the length of staple is not in- 
considerable. The longest fleece is that which is first 
taken from the sheep when it represents one year's 
growth. This is owing, doubtless, to the greater activity 
of the processes that relate to nutrition in the same ani- 
mal. The second shearing will furnish wool something 
less in length, and each year subsequently there will be 
some decrease in the length of the staple. The difference 
in the length of staple between a young sheep and the 
same when advanced in age is marked. 

Length of staple is secured and maintained by liberal 
feeding. The more liberal the feeding, up to a certain 
limit, the longer will be the wool fiber. It does not fol- 
low, however, that the relation between food and growth 
in the wool corresponds exactly to the relation between 
food and flesh production in the same animal. For in- 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL ^J 

stance, the wool fibers in an animal in lean condition may 
be longer relatively than those possessed by one in good 
condition. Nature in this way makes provision for the 
protection of the animal. Length of staple may be in- 
creased through selection in breeding, backed up by lib- 
eral feeding, but in all breeds there is a limit in the length 
of the wool fibers beyond which it may not be desirable 
to go, just as there is a limit in size which it may not be 
desirable to exceed. 

Thickness or density in wool — Thickness or density in 
wool has reference to the number of the fibers that grow 
on a given area of body surface. The density of the wool 
has also a bearing on its elasticity. Other things being 
equal, the more dense it is the more elastic will it be ; that 
is, the greater will be the rebound when pressure is re- 
moved from it. Usually there is a relation between the 
coarseness or fineness of the fiber and the number of the 
fibers ; as a rule the coarser the fiber, the smaller the num- 
ber of the fibers, and vice versa. Thickness or density in 
the fibers has an important bearing on the weight of the 
fleece. The larger the number of the wool fibers, other 
things being equal, the heavier will be the weight of the 
fleece. It also exercises an important influence in pro- 
tecting the animal from injury by rain or sleet storms. 
The density of the wool accounts in part at least for the 
superior hardihood of the American Merino. The more 
dense the wool, the more perfect is the protection thus 
furnished. 

The variations in the density of wool are very consid- 
erable. Some of the finest grades of Saxony wool measure 
i-2,oooth of an inch. In growing wool the aim should be 
to secure as much of density as possible without hinder- 
ing development in other directions. Up to a certain 
limit there would seem to be no antagonism between 
density and length ; nevertheless, the fact remains that 
the most dense wools are of short fiber and the least dense 
wools are of long fiber. 



/S MANAGEMENT AND EEEUING OF SHEEP 

Density is a breed characteristic and, therefore, is not 
directly influenced by feeding. It is secured in the pure 
breeds, and is maintained and increased, by judicious 
breeding. It may be influenced materially by judicious 
selection, especially of the males used in service. Sim- 
ilarly in grade sheep it is increased by the use of sires 
possessed of much density of wool. But increase in 
density in wool, like increase in fineness of fiber, comes 
slowly. The form of the sheep can be transformed much 
more quickly than a corresponding change can be made 
in the density of the wool. 

Crimp or curl in wool — Crimp or curl in wool means 
the crimped or waved character of the fibers. Strictly 
speaking, crimp means the tendency of the wool fibers to 
form more or less regular and minute but not too close 
lying folds in the process of their growth, and curl or 
wave means the tendency in the fibers to produce waves 
or curls — that is, spirals — as they grow outward. The 
latter tendency is the same as the former in kind, though 
less in degree. It is caused by more or less regular alter- 
nations in the thickening of the fiber, first on one side 
and then on the other. These are more or less spirally 
arranged. A curly fiber is a great aid in spinning wool, 
since it can be drawn finer and a more compact and 
rounded thread formed. Crimp or curl is much more pro- 
nounced, and is relatively more important in the fine 
wools. Crimp is to some extent an indication of strength 
in wool, and gives it higher adaptation for certain proc- 
esses of manufacture. In high-class Merino wool the 
degree of crimp possessed is a matter of much importance. 
In the best bred fleeces, the crimp is perceptible to the 
naked eye, to the very tip of the fibers, and is not merged 
into dark clots or indurations. 

The variations in degree in crimp in wool are very 
marked. In very fine wools, at least 30 to 33 waves or 
crimps are found in an inch in length. These waves 
should be perfectly regular but not so abrupt as to ap- 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 79 

pear as folds. Long- Leicester wool has about eight or 
nine curls to an inch in length of fiber. There is also a 
marked difference in the degree to which the waved or 
curled fibers combine, so as to form locks or spirals which 
hang like ringlets. Some of these are very large and some 
are quite small, even in sheep of the same breed. 

While the immediate cause of crimp or curl is the 
thickening of the cortical layer of the fiber, first on one 
side and then on the other, the reasons why growth in 
the fiber should proceed thus are not well understood. It 
is known, however that the degree to which crimp or 
curl may be maintained in wool is influenced by selection 
in breeding. When a fine wooled sheep, as the American 
Merino, is crossed by a coarse wooled sheep, as the Cots- 
wold, there is a reduction in the waves or crimp found 
in the wool of the progeny and vice versa. 

Softness or pliancy in wool — Softness or pliancy in 
wool, which is the opposite of wiriness or stiffness, means 
its lack of resistance to gentle pressure. The measure of 
the resistance to such pressure is the measure of the soft- 
ness. Elasticity is that quality in wool which causes it 
to yield readily under pressure and then to resume its 
former position when the pressure is removed. There is 
no antagonism between softness and elasticity. On the 
other hand, they are usually associated. Elasticity is in- 
dicative of life in wool, hence the more of it that soft 
wools have, the more valuable they are. Softness or 
pliancy in wool can only be measured by the sense of 
touch, hence the difficulty of expressing in words just 
what it means. The trained hand of a wool sorter meas- 
ures it in a moment, through the sense of touch. 

Softness or pliancy in wool differs much in the differ- 
ent breeds of sheep, and in different parts of the same 
fleece. The difference may be almost as great in wool 
from certain breeds as the difference between feathers 
and down. The softest wool is furnished by the fine wool 
breeds, other things being equal. Among the other in- 



8o MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

fluences that affect softness in wool, apart from those that 
relate to breeding, are the plentifulness and the quality of 
the yolk, climate, lack of condition, old age, disease, ex- 
posure and the chemical constituents of the soil. Wool 
lacking yolk is lacking in softness and elasticity, and 
these qualities increase with the increase in the yolk up to 
a certain limit, as long as it retains the liquid form. 

Cool climates furnish softer wool than those that are 
hot. A lean condition affects softness adversely through 
a lessened nourishment of the wool fiber and of the sup- 
ply of yolk. Old age, disease, and undue exposure, simi- 
larly affect softness in wool, and for the same reason. 
Soils affect this quality directly through the constituents 
which they furnish, and indirectly through the degree of 
the nutrition and the succulence in the food furnished. 
Clay soils furnish wool of good quality, while limestone 
soils produce wool that is much more harsh. Since the 
chief of the causes that influence softness or pliancy in 
wool are known, the methods of maintaining and increas- 
ing these are also known. Such maintenance and increase 
will, of course, be secured by shunning, as far as may be 
practicable, the influences that are adverse to softness. 
Careful regard should be had to the breeding, as no single 
influence affects this quality more than breeding, under 
normal conditions. 

Color in the staple of wool — Color in the staple of wool 
may affect all the fibers of the fleece through the entire 
length of the same, or it may affect only some of them 
thus on certain parts of the body. The color, as white 
or black, illustrates the former. Black or gray patches 
in the fleece in certain parts of the body illustrate the lat- 
ter. But it may also affect the shade which the wool 
fibers will assume when the fleece is parted, as the out- 
come of condition linked with breed peculiarities. 

Varieties in the color of the staple, even in the wools 
that are essentially white colored, are considerable. When 
the wool of a fleece of this class is parted, the color may 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 8l 

be a beautiful white, a rich yellow or an orange tint, ac- 
cording to the breed or grade of the sheep. In some in- 
stances there is more or less banding of these colors. 
Banding means their occurrence in bars and in alterna- 
tions that run across the wool at right angles to the length 
of the fibers. Such banding is not only allowable, but is 
considered an indication that is favorable rather than 
otherwise. Fleeces that are entirely black or mottled are 
directly or indirectly the outcome of breeding. 

Desirable color may be secured and increased mainly 
through selection in breeding. If wool of any of the 
recognized and useful shades is desired, the aim should 
be to breed only from sheep that carry fleeces that are 
thus characterized. If sheep possessed of wool of differ- 
ent colors are present in the same flock, undesirable color 
in the wool may appear in some of the progeny, though 
the breeding should be otherwise correct. 

Uniformity of fleece in wool — Uniformity in wool has 
reference to a similarity in the wool fibers as distributed 
over the body. It has reference to fineness of fiber, to 
length of fiber, strength of fiber and to density in the 
same. Complete uniformity in any of the senses named 
is not attainable ; nevertheless, in all of these respects it 
is much more nearly approximated in some breeds and 
grades of sheep than in others, and the same is true of 
individuals of the same breed. 

When the wool is nearly equally fine at the should- 
ers, ribs, hips, rumps and thighs, it is said to be uniform 
as to fineness. When it is nearly equally long at the 
shoulders, back, sides, hips and thighs, it is said to be 
uniform as to length. When it is about equally strong on 
all the parts named, it is said to be uniform in strength of 
fiber. When it is nearly equally dense and elastic at the 
shoulders, loin and rump, it is said to be uniform in 
density. 

The variations in uniformity of fleece are more ac- 
centuated usually in breed than in individuals of a breed. 



82 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

but even in the latter sense there is considerable lack of 
uniformity. The unimproved types have much less of 
uniformity in the fleece than the improved types, and 
in the highly improved breeds the contrast is even 
greater. Wool is usually somewhat coarser at the rump 
and hips than at the sides and shoulders. It is usually 
longer on the upper portion of the body and on the 
shoulders, sides and hips of the same than on other por- 
tions ; as, for instance, the head, belly and limbs. The 
difference in strength of fiber is usually less than that in 
length of the same, for the influences that produce strong 
fiber on one part of the body also tend to produce the 
same on every other part. Less of density is often found 
on the thighs and underline than on the other parts of 
the body. 

Uniformity in the fleece is maintained by continued 
and careful selection in breeding. To secure it in a 
marked degree, several generations of careful up-grad- 
ing are necessary, combined with a rigid selection with 
reference to the end sought. Great improvement has thus 
been made in the uniformity of the fleece produced by sev- 
eral of the improved breeds, including some of the oldest. 

Complete uniformity in the fleece is unattainable. It 
would not be possible to produce wool equally fine, long, 
strong or dense on the extremities of the body as on the 
body itself. Nor would this be altogether desirable. But 
on the body itself the greatest uniformity attainable 
should be sought. The value of the fleece will be pro- 
portionately enhanced as uniformity in the same is en- 
hanced. 

Style or quality in wool — Style in wool has reference 
to a combination of good qualities and to the absence of 
defects in the same. It includes such good qualities as 
strength of fiber, length of staple, thickness or density, 
crimp or curl, softness or pliancy, color in the staple and 
uniformity in the fleece. While all of these are impor- 
tant with reference to their bearing on quality, strength 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 83 

of fiber and softness or pliancy are specially so. Quality 
excludes such defects as felting in the fleece, cloudiness 
or discolorations, a stripy condition, break or joint, kemp 
or jar and such influences as toppiness and clots. It also 
excludes all such defects as result from the baneful in- 
fluences of environment, such as burs, spines and chaff. 

The variations in style are as various as the charac- 
teristics in breeds and grades of the same, and yet all 
classes of good wool have much in common, regardless of 
breed or grade. The leading characteristics of good wool 
all point in the same direction and the defects to be 
shunned are the same. 

Style or quality in wool cannot be secured in the ab- 
sence of good breeding, the most careful selection and 
the most ample care in the management of the flock. In 
the breeding of the sheep none of the valuable qualities of 
wool are to be lost sight of. In the selection of the same, 
those that rank highest in qualities of fleece are to be 
retained, and those that have defects are to be rejected. 
The exclusion of the baneful influences of environment 
are entirely, or at least in a large measure, in the hands of 
the owner. 

Closure of fleece in wool — By closure of fleece in wool 
is meant the gluing of the wool fibers as a result of the 
abundance of the yolk at the extremities of the wool, to 
which dust and dirt adhere so as to form a crust. This 
crust gives the fleece a dirty appearance, to the extent 
even of causing it to assume a dark shade approaching 
blackness on the surface. Such is the appearance of the 
wool carried by certain of the Merino types. One of 
these, the American Spanish Black Top, has been thus 
named because of the blackness of the fleece on its outer 
surface. This crust is nearly impervious to rain, and is 
a great protection to the wool against all kinds of dirt 
from whatsoever source it may come. This property may, 
however, under some conditions, become a detriment. 



84 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SIIEEF 

as shown later. This pecuHarity of fleece is confined to the 
fine wooled breeds. 

The benefits from such closure have already been 
touched upon. Sheep that are thus protected can endure 
exposure to rain, and especially to cold rain, very much 
better than sheep not thus covered. This furnishes one 
explanation of the superior hardihood of the Merino 
types. The only avenues through which any dirt can 
penetrate the wool are the openings between the glued 
masses, and these are so minute as practically to exclude 
dirt. Should it enter between the locks or masses, the 
outward movement of the yolk continually tends to eject it. 

Closure in the fleece is largely the outcome of breeding 
and selection. It is not possessed equally by the Merino 
breeds, nor even by individuals of the same breed or class. 
It is also much influenced by food. Sheep that are M^ell 
fed will possess more closure of fleece than others of sim- 
ilar breeding when on a spare diet. This follows from 
the plentiful and suitable food supplies and a sufficiency 
of yolk. Closure is not to be sought to the extent of 
gluing all the fibers together over any considerable area 
of the body, as this would make a covering so warm as to 
be unendurable in the summer season. The gluing is 
rather to be confined to small aggregations of fibers in a 
way that does not interfere with the escape of body heat 
through radiation. 

Felting in wool — Felty wool is that in which the 
fibers have a tendency to felt together on the sheep's 
back. In the aggravated form it is known as cots or cot- 
ted wool. The fibers so felt together that by shearing 
time portions of the fleece or all of it is so completely 
felted or matted that it can be lifted up by a single lock 
without parting asunder. It more generally develops in 
the winter season, when the sheep are on a dry diet. Such 
a fleece has a relatively low value and should not be sold 
with other wool. 

Cotting is caused primarily by an absence of yolk. In 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 85 

some instances the yolk glands dry to such an extent that 
many of the fibers have parted from the body before the 
fleece is shorn. Because of this, the removal of the fleece 
is not difficult. The secondary causes of cotting include 
continued wet weather, which washes the yolk out of the 
fleece, low condition or the presence of certain forms of 
disease. It is also to some extent the outcome of inherit- 
ance. Furthermore, it has been claimed that it sometimes 
results from ammoniacal exhalations arising in an un- 
clean stable. Cotting is much more frequent in the coarse 
than in the fine wool breeds, as the latter produce yolk 
more abundantly than the former, and the more dense 
fleece which they possess renders it more impervious to 
water. 

Since the causes that produce cotting are known, the 
means that should be taken to prevent it are evident. 
Sheep must be provided with food that will furnish suffi- 
cient yolk where cotting is to be prevented. They must 
be sufficiently protected during wet weather. They must 
be maintained in a reasonably good condition as to thrift. 
They must be kept free from disease that results in low 
condition, and they ought to be furnished with sheds free 
from conditions that produce filth. Where the felting is 
the outcome of constitutional inheritance, in whole or in 
part, the animals thus affected should be disposed of as 
soon as this may be practicable. 

Cloudiness in wool — Cloudy wool means the pres- 
ence of discolorations in the wool on various parts of the 
body. In some instances the wool assumes a lemon color 
or one that may be designated as yellowish, nankeen or 
saffron along the back or sides of the sheep. Sometimes 
it becomes more than ordinarily white on the neck, espe- 
cially when the sheep have been housed for a time and 
are then not housed. In some instances the wool ad- 
heres from the bottom upwards after the manner of felt, 
though less in degree. The wool is not necessarily in- 
jured in the staple, although in some instances it is, de- 



86 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

pendent on the cause of the cloudiness. The first quality 
of wool is elastic, lies loosely, and is white as snow. The 
next choice is a rich buff yellow or golden tint, and pos- 
sessed of uniformity in a marked degree. Cloudiness, 
therefore, detracts from the beauty and salableness of the 
wool. Discoloration from soil, as the dark wool of the 
adobe soil of California, or the reddish tint from the red 
clays of Tennessee, is not the same exactly as cloudiness, 
but, like cloudiness, it detracts somewhat from the mar- 
ket price paid. 

Cloudy wool may be produced by any one of the fol- 
lowing causes: (i) Rain dripping down on sheep from 
deficient roofs; (2) irregular and uneven exposure; (3) 
deprivation of exercise to the extent of lowering the cir- 
culation ; and (4) inheritance. Should the circulation be 
unduly lowered, the yolk will not be present in sufficient 
quantity, nor will it be sufficiently liquefied to carry it to 
the extremities of the fibers. In such instances the fiber 
of the wool is injured. When cloudy wool is the outcome 
of inheritance, the defect becomes constitutional. The 
fine wooled breeds have wool thus defective more fre- 
quently than the other sheep. 

The measures that should be taken to prevent cloudi- 
ness in wool will depend on the cause from which it may 
emanate. Should it result from the dripping of the water, 
mending or remending the roof or removing the sheep, 
will stay the evil. Should it be the outcome of uneven ex- 
posure, protecting the sheep from falling storms and al- 
lowing them to go in and out from the shelter of sheds at 
will, should prove effective. Should the circulation be un- 
duly lowered through lack of exercise or insufficient food, 
more exercise and better food should remove the trouble. 
When the defect is constitutional, the animals so affected 
should be rejected for breeding. 

Stripy or watery wool — The term was formerly ap- 
plied to wool lacking in wave or crimp and that is non- 
elastic ; that is to say, lifeless when compressed by the 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 8/ 

hand. The origin of these terms, not so frequently used 
during recent years as formerly, is somewhat obscure. 
The term stripy may have arisen from the deadness re- 
ferred to in the wool which characterized some portions only 
of the fleece in some instances in the living animal. The 
term watery may possibly have arisen from the lack of 
resistance to handling, shown by lifeless wools which 
are non-resistant. Such wool is sometimes found on the 
shoulders of inferior animals where only good wool should 
be. Wool removed from animals that may have died from 
disease, and especially disease that has lingered some 
time, is thus lacking in elasticity. Such wool is dis- 
counted in the market, frequently to the extent of several 
cents a pound. 

The causes that produce stripy and watery wool are, 
inheritance, lack of thrift and disease. Crimp and wave 
in wool increase elasticity in proportion as they are pres- 
ent, and reduce it in proportion as they are absent. The 
non-elasticity of the wool will be influenced adversely as 
thrift is lacking. The loss of elasticity in wool is pro- 
portionate to the intensity of disease in the same and to 
the period covered by the disease. 

The remedy for non-elasticity, the outcome of inherit- 
ance, is the rejection for breeding of animals thus affected 
or so inclined. When it is the outcome of lack of thrift, 
any treatment that conduces to thrift will so far remove 
the trouble. When caused by disease, it is very seldom 
that any efficient remedy can be applied. It is not to be 
understood that wool thus far injured can be restored to 
a normal condition, but that the application of the reme- 
dies will prevent the continuance of the production of 
such wool. Non-elastic wool is more difficult to card and 
comb than other wool. 

Break or joint in wool — Break or joint in wool indi- 
cates that when it is stretched or distended it will part 
asunder at some point of its length. The break will, of 
course, occur where the fiber is weakest. It makes wool 



88 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

useless for any combing purpose and very greatly im- 
pairs its value for any use. The break may occur along 
the length of the fiber according to the cause that may 
have produced it, and the time when that cause was 
operative. 

The immediate cause of break or joint is arrested 
nutrition for a longer or shorter period. When the glands 
that nourish the wool fibers are not sufficiently fed, they 
are unable to furnish the materials for sufficient growth 
in the wool ; no sooner does this happen than the growth 
made by the fibers at such a time is less than normal. The 
reduction will relate both to the size and strength of the 
fiber, and the continuance of such enfeebled growth will 
be exactly proportioned to the continuance of the period 
of deficient sustenance. The weakess of the fiber will also 
be proportioned to the degree to which sustenance was 
wanting. The primary cause is, of course, the lack of 
food or the lack of proper nutrition in the food, but other 
causes may have a qualifying influence. These include 
undue exposure, alkaline pastures and various forms of 
disease which for a time have reduced condition in the 
sheep. 

The cause of break or joint in wool being known, the 
way to prevent it is also known. Ample and suitable 
nutrition will always prevent it in healthy sheep. When 
sheep can be kept healthy this weakness in wool cannot 
occur. There may, of course, be conditions under which 
it is impossible to furnish the requisite nutrition, as dur- 
ing prolonged drought in range areas. There may also 
be occasions when it is not possible to furnish the requi- 
site shelter. Usually, however, on the arable farm suffi- 
cient foresight may be used to safeguard the flock from 
injury by the causes named, and therefore to prevent the 
occurrence of break or joint in wool. 

Kemp or jar in wool — Kemp or jar in wool, some- 
times called gare, is simply hair. Though these hairs 
occur singly, they may be distributed over the body. They 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 89 

are chiefly found on rams, and most commonly occur on 
the face, neck, forearm, and scrotum. When thus found, 
they are very liable to be present to some extent else- 
where. In rams of the Merino types they sometimes 
occur on the exposed surface of the neck folds, and less 
frequently on the folds at the sides and hips. In Cots- 
wold sheep and Angora goats they are of commonest 
occurrence at the hips. The presence of these hairs in 
the wool is highly objectionable, since in the combs and 
cards they are equally unmanageable. They will not 
blend with the wool fibers, and they will not take dye 
so readily as wool. Their presence has been known to 
reduce the value of the fleece by fully 50 per cent. Hairs 
short and curled are the most objectionable. 

The cause of kemp or jar is not certainly understood. 
It is most liable to occur in males, and more especially 
among the more vigorous of these ; hence there would 
seem to be some relation between occurrence of these 
hairs and constitutional vigor. 

Some authorities look upon the presence of these 
hairs as the outcome of spontaneous variation, but since 
some breeds produce them more frequently than others, 
it would seem reasonable to look upon them as being in 
some way the outcome of atavic transmission. The wild, 
coarse and frizzly character of the hairs is akin to these 
properties found in the wool of some at least of the prim- 
itive breeds. 

Until the cause of kemp or jar in wool is definitely un- 
derstood, it may not be possible to entirely prevent it. 
It is certain, however, that rams or other sheep that are 
thus afifected should not be kept for breeding. Such 
selection, long continued, would probably eliminate the 
evil. 

Toppiness, broad toppiness, black tops and clots in 
wool — Toppiness in wool means unevenness and lack of 
smoothness in the closure of the fleece, resulting from in- 
equality in the length of the fibers. Such wool is, of 



90 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

course, not equal in value with wool possessed of even 
length of fiber. Broad toppiness, means the division of 
the wool into broad masses or tops, caused by the inter- 
lacing of the fibers, which are to some extent split from 
the top downwards. Such a condition is objectionable, 
viewed from the standpoint of the manufacturer. 

Black top means the gluing together of the wool 
fibers over much of the body so as to render it almost 
impervious to rain. It extends the whole length of the 
fleece, and is densest along the back, but occurs more or 
less on the sides. It hinders the extension of the crimp 
to the extremities of the fibers, such as is found in a per- 
fect fleece. If the sheep are much confined in winter it 
becomes separated into masses or lumps. Each of these, 
tipping more or less of the fibers, becomes exceedingly 
hard, and, in proportion, they impair the value of wool. 
The worst form of clot is gray shoulder clot, which is 
somewhat akin to blacktop, but exceeds it in degree. It 
occurs at the withers and frequently extends half way 
down the shoulders and more or less along the backbone. 
In a short-fibered fleece, the locks will be glued together 
in some instances for half their length, and will be about 
as hard as stone. The influence of all these conditions, 
with reference to its bearing on the manufacture of the 
wool, will be readily perceived. These defects are chiefly 
if not entirely confined to the Merino types of sheep. 

These conditions are all traceable more or less to 
inheritance, but they are also influenced by food and 
management, though not equally so. Food and manage- 
ment may not be able to influence in any marked degree 
the unevenness in the fibers that leads to toppiness, but 
it may influence in a marked degree gray shoulder clot, 
if caused by a feeble circulation and if aggravated by 
rain and washing out the softer parts of the yolk and 
allowing the residuum to gum the locks together. 

In so far as these defects are the outcome of inherit- 
ance, they can largely be prevented by selection. In so 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 9 1 

far as they are the outcome of deficient management, it is 
almost needless to say that correct management will in 
time lessen the tendency to such defects, if it does not 
entirely remove it. 

Influences from environment that are harmful — The 
influences from environment that are harmful in wool are 
various. They are such as relate to soils which tend to 
color the wool, to imperfect protection, as the roofs of 
sheds that leak, and the adherence of foreign substances 
to the wool, such as burs, spines and chaflf. The hurtful- 
ness from soils it is not possible to remedy in some in- 
stances. Those from leaking roofs may easily be pre- 
vented by simply stopping the leaks. Those from for- 
eign substances are taken into the wool while the sheep 
are grazing or taking fodder in winter, and are therefore 
preventable. 

Burs are of various kinds, as the burdock, the cockle- 
bur, the beggar tick and the sand bur. When these are 
allowed to grow in the pastures, the sheep when grazing 
come in touch with them and they become entangled in 
the wool, to the extent in some instances of covering the 
whole fleece. Especially is this true of the burdock. The 
remedy is to prevent these from maturing their seeds ; 
that is, from forming mature burs in which the seed is 
inclosed. For the best methods of doing this, the reader 
is referred to "Weeds and How to Eradicate Them," by 
the author. 

Needle grass is peculiar to range pastures, especially 
to those ranges that lie west from the Rocky mountains. 
At one time it infested nearly all the land in the West 
known as prairie land. This grass grows up tall amid the 
prairie grasses early in the season and matures spines, 
which in shape somewhat resemble needles. When the 
sheep graze among them as they approach maturity in 
June or July, they fall into the wool, and through motion 
in the same while the sheep are walking, they work down 
into the flesh. Lambs are the greater sufferers from their 



92 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

presence, for the reason that they have longer wool at 
that season than the old sheep. The remedy consists of 
keeping the flock, if possible, on other pastures until the 
needles fall to the ground. If the grass that produces 
them was cut sufficiently early they would not mature 
any seed, but on the range this would not be practicable. 
Should the wool be infested with the needles, removing 
the fleece will prevent further harm. This grass and 
nearly all kinds of plants that thus injure wool are easily 
destroyed by careful cultivation. 

Injury from chafif and broken pieces of straw comes 
from sheep feeding from improperly constructed racks, 
and at the sides of unfenced stacks. When thus feeding, 
chaiT, short pieces of straw and dust fall down upon the 
backs of the sheep and work their way into the wool. 
The wool on the top of the neck and shoulders is natu- 
rally the most injured by these substances. That of the 
long wooled breeds takes the greatest harm, since it is 
the most open, and that of the fine wooled breeds the 
least, since it is the most dense. The remedy is plain. It 
is to provide properly constructed racks and to prevent 
sheep from feeding at stacks of any kind. 

Sheep sometimes lose more or less of their wool, 
especially in the winter season. This may result from 
undue exposure, as when the wool drops off the outer 
portions of the wrinkles in Merinos which have been 
chilled. It may result from housing overwarm. which 
produces a fevered condition of the system, sometimes 
aggravated by constipation resulting from the food fed. 
It may also result from certain forms of disease, which 
also tend to produce the fevered condition referred to. In 
some instances sheep will pull out more or less of the 
wool from the bodies of the others. Such a condition 
usually evidences something lacking in the food. Should 
the habit become confirmed, which it does in rare in- 
stances, those addicted to it should be sent to the block. 



CHAPTER VI 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 

In Chapter VI the discussion dwells upon the follow- 
ing: (i)The season when lambs should come; (2) The 
care of the dams when nearing parturition ; (3) Special 
care at the lambing season ; (4) Giving aid to the dams 
in labor ; (5) Giving aid to the young lambs ; (6) Reviving 
lambs that may have been chilled ; (7) Managing ewes 
that do not own their lambs ; (8) Rearing lambs by hand ; 
(9) Supplemental food for lambs; (10) Food suitable for 
young lambs; (11) The lamb creep ; (12) Weaning lambs, 
and how it is done; (13) The proper food for lambs when 
weaned; (14) Castrating lambs; (15) Docking lambs; 
(16) The registration of pure bred lambs; and (17) Mis- 
cellaneous considerations. 

When lambs should come — The best season for lambs 
to come is determined by such influences as the market 
for which they are grown, the shelter that has been pro- 
vided, and to some extent by the breeding habit in the 
sheep. Of these influences the first is by far the most 
important, as, if sheep, and more particularly lambs, are 
not adapted to the conditions of the market for which 
they have been grown, they soon become a drug in the 
hands of the owner. To have young lambs at a season 
when the weather is cold in the absence of provision to 
properly protect them would be to court disaster to the 
lamb crop. Some breeds of sheep, not many, however, 
drop their lambs in the autumn, and others in the spring. 
The attempt to modify such habit, when this may be de- 
sired, cannot be quickly done (see p. 243). Lambs in- 
tended for the winter market, usually spoken of as hot- 
house or milk lambs, should come after the hot weather 
is over in summer and before lambs come for the spring 
market. They should be sold, as a rule, after the winter 

93 



94 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

holiday season and before the Easter season. If ready 
too early, they would reach the market in competition 
with the vast supply of poultry that fill the market just 
prior to the holiday season. If not ready early enough, 
they come in competition with early spring lambs, and 
at a lower price. 

Lambs for the spring market are supposed to be 
ready for the shambles not later than the Easter season. 
The milk lambs usually supply the needs of the market 
until the approach of the Easter season. The winter 
lambs, which come chiefly in the months of February and 
March, will take the market at an early age when plump 
and fat. Though they do not sell for prices so high as 
milk lambs, they will at the age of six to ten weeks sell 
for prices as high if not higher than they will bring sev- 
eral months later. These good prices for really good 
lambs may, and frequently do, continue for several weeks 
after the Christmas season, but the price paid after that 
season is less relatively in proportion to the weight of 
the lambs. When prices can be obtained for such lambs 
fully equal to those obtained for them several months 
later, there are no good reasons for keeping them thus 
long before selling them for meat. 

When lambs are to be sold for breeding uses, they 
should come early rather than late. The aim should be to 
have them come as early as winter lambs intended for 
the Easter market, but they should not be pushed so 
rapidly as the latter when young. Such lambs should 
come thus early for the reason, first, that those who pur- 
chase give the preference to large lambs when making 
their selections; and, second, that they usually grow to a 
larger size. That the result last mentioned follows may 
be disputed, but there would seem to be some truth in the 
belief. And it seems to be more in evidence in the case 
of Merinos than of some other breeds. It may rest upon 
the advantage which a strong and well-developed animal 
has on entering the winter over one not so well developed. 



LAMBS fROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 95 

It is more important relatively that male lambs come 
early when they are to be used in service, as in such in- 
stances the added maturity which they possess will bet- 
ter fit them for such a use. 

Lambs to be finished in the autumn and before the clos- 
ing in of winter should come at a time intermediate be- 
tween winter lambs to be sold early and spring lambs for 
lireeding the following winter. The aim should be to 
have them come just before the season for turning out to 
graze. The relative loss in the lambs will probably be 
less when they come at such a time than if the lambing 
season was deferred until the coming of the earliest grass. 
The lainbs thus safely started in the sheds will grow 
rapidly when the dams are turned out on the succulent 
grazing. If both ewes and lambs are supplied with suit- 
able grazing, the latter will reach such weights as the 
market demands before the arrival of winter. 

Lambs to be finished in the winter following their 
birth should not come until the grass has made sufficient 
growth to sustain both ewes and lambs in good form. 
Should they come earlier they will be larger than the 
market calls for if kept all the time on good grazing. 
Tlie market prefers lambs ranging somewhere between 
80 and 100 pounds. Some years ago lambs much heavier 
were most in favor, but it is not thus now. The larger 
the normal size of the breed the later may the lambs 
come, lest they should reach weights too heavy before 
the season arrives for finishing them. 

Dams when nearing parturition — When lambs are 
dropped on the pastures it is not specially necessary to 
know to a day just when they will be born, but it is 
important to know that lambs may be expected after a 
certain date, and that no more need be looked for be- 
yond another fixed date. These dates may, of course, be 
readily known by noting when the male was admitted to 
the flock at the mating season and when he was removed. 
This knowledge makes it possible to give that close atten- 



96 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

tion to the flock which is necessary at such a time. When 
lambs are born in the sheds it is important to know when 
each individual ewe may be expected to bring forth her 
young, and the more valuable the dams are the more im- 
portant is such information relatively. The profits from 
the flock are determined largely by the success that at- 
tends the effort to save the lambs. 

It is possible, of course, to know within a day or two 
the time when each individual ewe may be expected to 
bring forth her young. This can be known by noting the 
time of the service and keeping a record of the same. The 
period of gestation in ewes is 147 days. It seldom varies 
more than a day or two, but it may occur not less than 
a week before or after the period named. Such a record 
is valuable to any shepherd, but it is particularly valua- 
ble in the case of pedigreed sheep. 

When the sheep are yet in the sheds, the dams that 
are about to bring forth their young should be separated 
from the flock by taking them to the lambing pen, or by 
surrounding them with a movable inclosure made of posts 
and slats within which they are confined until the lambs 
are well on their feet. These portable pens should be 
light and the slats on the sides so close near the bottom 
as not to admit of the young lambs getting through be- 
tween them, and thus wandering away from the ewe. 
Pieces, 2x2 inches and 3 to 4 feet long, will answer for 
the posts, and strips 3 to 4 feet long and 4 to 6 inches wide 
for the sides. Such lumber, or even a little less in the 
thickness, will furnish them strong enough. The dimen- 
sions of these inclosures should to some extent be de- 
termined by the size of the sheep. 

The advantage claimed for these portable pens over 
the stationary pen is that when the dams are confined in 
the former, they are still left in quarters to which they are 
accustomed and in sight of the other sheep ; hence they 
worry less than if removed to a stationary lambing pen. 
This, however, may be obviated in a measure by thus 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 97 

confining more than one ewe at a time. In the stationary 
pen, it may be necessary to have divisions, portable or 
otherwise, in which to keep the ewes separate from one 
another. 

When it is not known just when the ewes are to yean, 
it may be well to examine the flock occasionally, and to 
separate from the others the dams that are soon to yean. 
The most important indication of the near approach of 
the time of yeaning is the condition of the udder. It, of 
course, enlarges and fills out, as a rule, before the lambs 
are produced, and the teats distend. If ewes are cast or 
thrown for the purpose of examining the udder, the 
handling should be of the gentlest character. Such ex- 
amination is seldom necessary at intervals less than a 
week apart. The first indication of actual yeaning is a 
restless movement and a distracted look. Then follow 
indications too apparent to be mistaken. 

Special care at the lambing season — The lambing 
season is the flockmaster's harvest. If the losses at such 
a time are frequent, the profits will be cut down accord- 
ingly. To keep the percentage of loss down to a mini- 
mum at such a season should be the honest, earnest en- 
deavor of every shepherd. But even with the best of 
care, some losses may usually be looked for in a large 
flock. Many of the ewes will bring forth their young in 
the night. The presence of the shepherd at such a time 
may result in saving the life of a lamb and even of a ewe ; 
hence when the sheep are yet in the sheds, the shepherd 
should not fail to visit the flock at midnight, and again 
in the very early morning. The more inclement the 
weather the greater is the necessity for such nocturnal 
vigils. Where the flock is large it may be necessary 
sometimes for the shepherd to remain much of the night 
with the flock. Such vigils may be trying, but they are a 
part of the true shepherd's work, and they will be un- 
grudgingly given by a shepherd who has his work suffi- 
cientlv at heart. At such times he should not fail to sus- 



98 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

tain his own strength by taking suitable food and drink. 

It would not be practicable to spend time at night 
with a flock in the field, nor is it necessary, the weather 
is so much warmer at such a time. But the flock should 
be visited late in the evening and at early dawn in the 
morning. When the slightest hazard is present that 
storms may happen in the night, the sheep should with- 
out fail be brought home to the shed at nightfall. 

Extra attention at such a time is an absolute neces- 
sity, and the shepherd should not even consider it irk- 
some, for it is a legitimate part of his work. Trouble may 
arise in his absence in a score of different ways. The 
dams in labor may not be able to bring forth without help. 
Some lambs may be so weak as to be unable to get on 
their feet without being helped to the milk of the dam, 
and others, as in the case of twins, may wander away 
from the dam and perish. For these and other reasons 
too much attention cannot be given to the flock during 
the lambing season. 

Assisting ewes in labor — When all goes well during 
parturition, it is better to let nature have her way and to 
refrain from assisting in the delivery of the lambs. But 
should any hindrance arise that tends to delay delivery 
too long, or should a false presentation occur, assistance 
given may save the life of the lamb and in some instances 
that of the ewe. 

Trouble may arise from various causes. Prominent 
among these are lambs with the head abnormally large, a 
false presentation and the retention of lambs that are 
dead. A weak condition of the ewes at the time of lamb- 
ing always tends to aggravate such troubles. Such a 
condition may of itself tend so to prolong the time occu- 
pied in labor as to hazard the life of the progeny, if not 
of the dam, unless aid is given with due discretion. 

When a lamb with a head abnormally large comes 
to the birth and yet is not born within a reasonable time, 
aid should be given to the ewe in labor. This may be 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 99 

done by placing the hand flatwise on the skin of the 
vulva and pressing it back over the head of the lamb. 
\\'hen the head is thus freed, the front legs should be 
drawn forth, one at a time, until freed. Then by taking 
l^oth legs intone hand and pulling in a somewhat circular 
direction toward the rear of the ewe's udder the delivery 
will speedily be completed. But the attendant should 
only attempt to render aid thus at such times as the ewe 
herself is straining; that is, trying to deliver her progeny. 

False or unnatural presentations may occur in vari- 
ous forms, but two of these that are most common are, 
first, the head lying back against the side; and, second, 
the rear end of the lamb coming first, the legs at the 
same time being doubled back. In the former instances 
the lamb should be pushed back into the womb and there 
so straightened that it will come in the natural way. In 
the latter instances it is also pushed back and the legs 
put in position. It then comes from the dam stern end 
first. 

When a pregnant ewe separates herself from the 
other members of the flock and appears dull and stupid, 
it will usually be found that she has recently aborted or 
that she is carrying a dead lamb. In the latter instance 
relief must be prompt if the life of the ewe is to be saved, 
as in such instances blood poisoning quickly follows, 
which will certainly prove fatal. The ewe is best in posi- 
tion, when relieved of her lambs, when resting on her 
back or buttock, but it will be well if the position is occa- 
sionally changed. The person who removes the lamb 
should trim his nails short and anoint his hands with 
some lubricant which is also antiseptic, and the hands 
should be entirely free from wounds of any kind. Various 
devices are practiced to aid the operator, as, for instance, 
forcing the finger through the soft part of the under jaw 
of the lamb and slipping a piece of string sufficiently 
strong in the form of a noose over the under jaw of the 
same. The efifort to take away the dead lamb should 



lOO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

only be made in unison with the efforts of the ewe to be 
relieved of it. The aim should be to remove the placenta 
at the same time. After the lambs have been removed 
the womb should be treated with tepid solutions of car- 
l)olic injections twice a day for a few days. If much time 
is covered in relieving a ewe of her dead lamb or lambs, 
it may be necessary to administer some stimulant to pre- 
vent her from succumbing. 

Giving aid to young lambs — When the lambs come 
strong and vigorous it is seldom necessary to give them 
help in any way. As soon as they ought to take food 
from the dam they will do so, as a rule, unless in in- 
stances when the ewes will not own them. Sometimes 
even strong lambs will not nurse for a time, for the rea- 
son that they are not hungry, but usually they will seek 
to nurse as soon as they are well on their feet. When 
they come into the world in a cold atmosphere, it may be 
wise to try and get them to take some of the milk of the 
dam as soon as possible after they are born, to fortify 
them against the cold. Wrapping them in a warm 
blanket may also prove very helpful. In some instances 
it may be necessary to remove the thin mucus mem- 
brane, that covers the mouth of the lamb to obviate the 
danger of sufifocation ; but usually the ewe, when strong, 
will remove this when caring for the lamb. 

Newly born and young lambs may require aid from 
the shepherd under the following conditions: (i) When 
they are weak and unable of themselves to take nourish- 
ment ; (2) when the dam gives attention chiefly to one 
lamb when twins are born ; (3) when free passage of the 
bowels is not secured within a reasonable time of the 
birth of the lamb ; (4) when lambs become chilled. 

When lambs are too weak in themselves to take 
nourishment, it should be given to them within a rea- 
sonable time after they are born, usually within, say. half 
an hour of birth. When the dam has milk for the lamb, 
it should be assisted in taking the same directly from the 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED lOI 

dam. When only one person is present, the task may 
not be an easy one, especially if the lamb is unable to 
stand. In such instances it renders the work easier if 
the ewe is turned up ; that is, placed upon her buttock, her 
back being supported against the breast of the shepherd. 
His hands are then sufficiently free to enable him to aid 
the lamb in nursing. When two persons are present the 
work is more easily and usually more effectively accom- 
plished. The lamb may also be fed by drawing some milk 
from the ewe and feeding the same to the lamb with a 
spoon. When the atmosphere is cold, it will aid in giving 
the milk warm if hot water has been in the cup just 
before the milk is withdrawn from the ewe. The lamb's 
mouth is kept open sufficiently by putting a finger into 
it, and care must be taken not to feed the milk too fast, 
lest the lamb should strangle. If no milk can be obtained 
from the ewe, which sometimes happens, resort must be 
had to cow's milk. When such milk is fed, one-third of 
its bulk in water should be added and also a little sugar, 
to make it more nearly resemble the milk of the ewe in 
its constituents. Milk should be thus given in very small 
quantities, and frequently, rather than in large amounts 
and at long intervals. 

When twin lambs are born the attentions of the ewe 
are sometimes centered on the care of one lamb to the 
neglect of the other. In some instances one lamb will 
be much stronger than the other, and when milk is not 
plentiful will get more than its rightful share. Timely 
aid and timely and sufficient attention on the part of the 
shepherd may not only prevent many a ewe from disown- 
ing her lamb, but may also save the life of lambs that 
would otherwise perish. It may be necessary thus to aid 
such lambs for several days, or until they are able to take 
care of themselves. 

If, within a few hours of birth, a lamb should appear 
dumpish and drowsy, it will usually be found that this 
condition is caused by constipation. If an injection is 



102 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

promptly administered, usually it will bring relief. A 
small dose of castor oil may bring about the same result. 
An injection may be prepared by making a suds of warm 
water and any kind of pure soap ; castile soap answers 
well and pure soft water makes suds, of course, more 
readily than hard water. From half a teaspoonful to a 
teaspoonful will usually suffice for a dose, depending on 
the size and strength of the lamb. In obstinate instances 
of constipation it may be necessary to give the injection 
and also the physic before relief comes. A small syringe 
is used in administering the injection. 

In some instances the excrement from lambs is so 
sticky in character that it will adhere to the parts under 
and around the tail head, in some cases to the extent of 
closing the passage from the rectum. Such a condition 
calls for prompt removal of the same. It is caused by 
imperfect digestion, tracing usually to some peculiarity 
of the milk of the dam arising from the character of the 
rations fed. Milk from ewes that have been fed too much 
grain may prove so unsuitable to young lambs at birth 
as to result in their death. That from ewes fed entirely 
on a dry diet may result in constipation. This seldom 
happens when the ewes are fed even a moderate allow- 
ance of field roots, or when in the absence of roots the 
grain food consists of bran, oats and oilcake. 

Reviving lambs when chilled — With the best of care, 
it sometimes happens in a large flock that lambs newly 
born will be chilled before they are seen by the shepherd. 
To revive them under any circumstances is no easy task, 
and, of course, the farther the chilling process has pro- 
ceeded the more difficult is it. As long as life remains, 
in the lamb, however, there is hope. In some instances 
the reviving process may only cover a few hours. In 
other instances the lamb may remain for days on the bor- 
derland between life and death. 

One of two methods may be followed in the effort 
to revive chilled lambs. By the first the lamb is wrapped 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO3 

in a warm covering and placed near enough the stove to 
warm gradually. A small amount of milk is given to it, 
providing it can swallow the same, and in the milk there 
should be a small amount of spirits, preferably gin. By 
the second, the lamb is immersed for a short time in 
warm water except, of course, the head. It may be neces- 
sary to add more hot water after the lamb has been in 
the water for a short time. It is then vigorously rubbed 
until dry, wrapped in a warm covering and placed near 
the stove. The first method is usually followed with 
lambs that are not chilled to the extent of their being un- 
able to take nourishment, and the second method when 
they are so far gone as to be unable to take good food. 
In the early stages of the chilling process, the lamb may 
sometimes be revived by simply giving it milk and 
wrapping it for a time in some warm corner of the sheep 
shed. 

Certain hazards are to be avoided in the attempt to 
revive chilled lambs. One of these is the danger that the 
lamb will be strangled in the attempt to give it milk. A 
second is the hazard that it may be given more milk than 
it can digest when in a condition so weakly. A third is 
that excessive heat from the stove may further sicken 
the lamb and so hasten its death. A fourth is the danger 
that constipation may follow. When the indications of 
such a condition manifest themselves (see p. 417)) the 
treatment should be given outlined on the same page. The re- 
vived lamb should not be kept away from the dam longer 
than is absolutely necessary, lest she disown it. 

If lambs are chilled when born in the pastures, the 
problem of reviving them is usually more complicated. 
The first effort, of course, should be to care for the lamb. 
This done it will usually be necessary to confine the dam 
to the sheds until the fate of the lamb has been fully de- 
termined. To reduce the unrest of the ewe at such a 
time, she should have one or two companions. 

Ewes not owning their lambs — Various reasons may 



I04 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

be given for ewes not owning their lambs. Prominent 
among these are the following: (i) When a ewe produces 
twins and one lamb wanders away from her she may 
soon come to disown it; (2) she may be so devoid of ma- 
ternal instinct as to refuse to give attention to any lamb ; 

(3) the maternal instinct may be so developed that the 
ewe will injure her lamb by her frenzied attentions and 
later will disown it; (4) the ewe may make a mistake in 
identity and may persist in owning the v/rong lamb. 
Timely intervention on the part of the shepherd may pre- 
vent the disowning of the lamb in the first instance. 

Ewes that act as indicated in the second and third 
instances should not longer be retained for breeding. The 
instances are not numerous in which the identity of the 
offspring is mistaken. 

Among the methods that have been adopted to cause 
refractory ewes to own their lambs are the following: 
(i) Milk is drawn from the ewe and rubbed over the back 
and hips of the lamb, or what is even better, milked on to 
the parts named, as then the odor from the hands is less 
pronounced than when the milk is rubbed on with the 
hands. In some instances the method will succeed, but 
not in all or even in a large proportion of these. (2) The 
tail of the lamb is cut, and blood from the wound is 
smeared on the back and hips of the lamb and on the nose 
of the ewe. This method fails in many instances. (3) 
The ewe and her lamb are confined in a pen and a dog 
is brought up to it. In rare instances, and more espe- 
cially in the case of young ewes, this method will rouse 
within them the instinct to own and defend their young. 

(4) The dam and her lamb are confined in a small in- 
closure and the ewe is held many times a day while the 
lamb takes its food from her. In time she will become 
so reconciled to the lamb as to allow it to take food. But 
it may take two or three weeks to accomplish this end. 
When the ewe has produced twins and owns one of the 
lambs, the diflficulty in overcoming her aversion to the other is 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO5 

much increased, as the lamb which she owns will get 
more than its share of the food. It may be necessary in 
some instances to allow the lamb to nurse occasionally 
some other ewe which has an ample supply of milk. (5) 
The ewe is confined in a stanchion. This may be tem- 
porary or permanent. When temporary the ewe is con- 
iined by driving two stakes down into the ground, one on 
each side of the neck, and two more, one on each side 
of the hip. In both instances they are tied at the top. 
The lambs are thus put in a position to help themselves 
and when they get strong the ewe will in time allow 
them to nurse. Where a large flock is kept it may be 
profitable to have a permanent stanchion with feed man- 
ger in front of it in which to fasten such ewes in case 
of need. When thus fastened the ewes can still lie down 
and rest at will. 

W'hen a ewe loses her lamb or lambs she may be 
made to adopt another by removing the skin from her 
dead lamb and tying it over the body of the other lamb 
for a time. This plan is usually more successful when the 
strange lamb is thus clad with the skin of the other while 
it is yet warm. Where this plan does not succeed the 
ewe will usually come to allow it to nurse after she has 
been made to suckle it for a number of days. The aim 
should be to have every ewe of breeding age in the flock 
suckle a lamb, not only because of the food which she is 
thus made to furnish, but because of the favorable influ- 
ence which it has on her future breeding. 

Rearing lambs by hand — Lambs may be reared suc- 
cessfully that are hand fed. The cost of such rearing, 
however, is so much that in many instances it exceeds the 
value of the lambs when they are reared for meat pro- 
duction only. In the counties of Dorset and Somerset, 
England, such lambs are reared regularly by certain 
dairymen who obtain them from flocks in which an ex- 
cess of lambs have been produced. It will, of course, be 



I06 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

profitable to rear pedigreed lambs thus when occasion 
calls for it, providing they are well reared. 

In some instances the choice must be made between 
rearing lambs thus and allowing them to perish. These 
include the following: (i) When the dam dies at the 
time of parturition and no ewe is available for suckling 
the orphan lamb or lambs. (2) When dams have triplets 
and one of the number is so weakly that it cannot fight its 
battle alone in the struggle for existence. (3) When a 
ewe has produced twins and persistently disowns one of 
them. In some instances lambs produced at the stock- 
yards by ewes intended for or on their way to slaughter, 
and these can only be saved by those who have cow's milk 
for rearing them. 

The only real trouble in rearing such lambs consists 
in starting them properly. A little sugar should be added to 
the cow's milk when first given to make it more like ewe's 
milk in its constituents. One of two methods of feeding 
may be adopted. By the first, the lamb is made to take 
its food from a bottle with the nipple similar to that used 
in feeding children. By the second the lamb is taught to 
drink. The first method is the easier one at the outset, 
and it enables the lamb to take its milk more slowly, and 
therefore more naturally, than when it drinks from a ves- 
sel. The second method is the more troublesome until 
the lamb begins to drink, after which it is less trouble- 
some than the former, since there is no cleansing of bot- 
tles and nipples as when these are used. It also makes 
it possible to add such food as flaxseed gruel or jelly to 
the milk so as to cheapen the cost of production. Lambs 
may frequently be taught to drink milk from a dipper by 
allowing them at first to take the rim in the mouth and 
raising the further edge to bring the milk to them. 

The young lambs should be fed quite frequently, as 
often at first as every second hour. The food should be 
given warm, and preferably from cows newly calved. The 
times of feeding may gradually become fewer until the 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO7 

lambs are weaned ; when they are two weeks old, five or 
six feeds a day should suffice; when a month old. 
three or four; when two months old, two; and when three 
months old, one. In getting young lambs to drink, no 
little patience may be necessary. They should be given 
the finger when drinking for a time. 

The excessive cost usually incurred in rearing lambs 
on cow's milk arises from the fact that in nearly all in- 
stances the milk from start to finish is given in the whole 
form. There would seem to be no good reasons, how- 
ever, why skim milk should not be substituted for whole 
milk, as in the case of rearing calves. No experiments 
apparently have been conducted in this line. The change 
would have to be made gradually as in the case of calves, 
and as a matter of convenience in feeding, may be made 
when the lambs have been brought down to say three 
feeds a day. Flaxseed jelly may be added, as in feeding 
calves, and in such quantities as the lambs can utilize. 
If too much is fed the bowels will become too lax. When 
the lambs have learned to eat grain freely, the equivalent 
of the flax gruel may be given as oil meal, and along 
with the grain. When thus fed the cost of food should 
be less than the value of the meat made from it. Such 
lambs should, of course, be furnished with good grazing. 

Supplemental food for lambs — No substitute for the 
milk of the dams can be given to lambs that will meet 
their needs equally well. As long, therefore, as the milk 
of the dam meets the requirements of the lamb, supple- 
mental food is not necessary. But few dams, however, 
can furnish a lamb with all the food that it needs beyond 
the first three or four weeks of its life, and many ewes 
will not come up to this standard. Especially is this 
true of ewes that are not abundantly supplied with suc- 
culent food. 

As soon, therefore, as the dam is unable to meet the 
full needs of the lambs, supplemental food should be 
given. When the ewes are out on pastures succulent, 



I08 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

nutritious and abundant, the lambs in nearly all instances 
will not require supplemental food other than that which 
the pasture furnishes. But it is different with lambs not 
yet turned out to graze. They should be given succulent 
food such as may be available, and also grain, and they 
should be given both as soon as they will eat them. 

The precise character of the grain fed and the amount 
fed should be determined by the object for which the 
lambs are reared. This question is further discussed be- 
low under the subhead immediately following. The milk 
flow of the dams may and ought to be well maintained 
by liberal feeding. It is doubtful, however, whether it 
will pay to feed grain to ewes on fresh grass for the 
purpose of sustaining or increasing the milk flow. It is, 
of course, legitimate to do this while the ewes are yet 
on dry food, at least up to a certain limit, but experi- 
ments have shown that the increase from grain fed 
directly to lambs is more than the increase from the same 
when the grain is fed to the lamb, as it were, through 
the ewe for the purpose of increasing the milk for her 
lamb. This fact greatly emphasizes the wisdom of hav- 
ing the lambs take grain as soon as they will eat it when 
confined to the sheds. 

Food suitable for young lambs — When the dams are 
on abundant pastures when the lambs are born, it is not 
necessary to give them any food during the first months, 
as usually they do not need it, and it would not be easy 
to induce them to take it under such conditions. But in 
the sheds it is dififerent. In these the ewes do not usually 
milk so plentifully, hence the aim should be to make up 
the lack by giving food to the lambs ; and the earlier that 
the lambs come the more important is it relatively that 
such food shall be given to them. 

Young lambs will begin to nibble at fodders that are 
suitable for them when from 7 to 10 or 12 days old. They 
should have access to these apart from the ewes, as the 
former would pick out all the finer portions such as the 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO9 

lambs first begin to eat. Such fodders should be fine and 
leafy. No fodders furnish food more suitable than clover 
hay of fine growth, cut early and well cured. The second 
growth for the season of the common red clover has 
special adaptation for such feeding, and the same is true 
of alsike clover. Vetches and peas grown together and 
cut while yet under-ripe are also much relished by young 
Iambs. They should be grown so thickly as to produce 
a fine growth and should have enough of oats in them to 
prevent lodging. It will pay well to make provision for 
the growing of suitable fodders for young lambs where 
these come to hand early and in any considerable num- 
bers. 

Succulence should be provided for them in the form 
of cabbage, field roots or ensilage. Of these, cabbage 
will be found the most relished by the young lambs, but 
they soon become very fond of field roots. The cab- 
bage heads thus fed must be sliced. The field roots are 
best prepared by running them through a cutting box 
which cuts them into slices and then cuts the slices into 
narrow strips by the operation. They are also fond of 
corn silage, but cabbage and field roots are better adapted 
to the production of suitable bone and muscle. The aim 
should be to make field roots the chief reliance for such 
feeding, as, though not more suitable than cabbage, they 
are more easily stored. 

The nature of the concentrates and the amounts to 
feed young lambs is influenced by the use that is to be 
made of them. When the lambs are to be sold while yet 
on the dams the aim should be so to feed them that they 
shall be plump and fat, but when reared for breeding 
more of growth with less of fatness is the important con- 
sideration. For the former the following mixture will be 
found suitable, viz. : Ground corn, bran and oil meal in 
the proportions of two, one, and one parts by weight. If 
the corn is simply cracked the lambs will relish it as well 
or even better than when ground. When corn is ground 



1 lO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

for lambs the cob should be excluded. The oil cake may 
be best fed in the form of granules about the size of peas. 
In the above ration, peas may be substituted for corn, 
and oats for bran. Corn and wheat in the proportion of 
two and one parts will also make a good grain ration. 
For the latter, oats, bran and oilcake, in the proportions 
of three, one, and one parts by weight will be found quite 
suitable. 

The lamb creep — For the first three or four weeks after 
the lambs begin to eat, they should take their food within 
what is termed a ''lamb creep," which means simply an in- 
closure with suitably prepared openings, accessible to the 
lambs and not accessible to the dams which nurse them. It 
should be located in a nice, dry, airy place and as con- 
venient to the pens in which the dams are kept as may 
be practicable. When necessary the creep may be located 
in the pasture. The size of the creep will, of course, de- 
pend on the number of the lambs to be accommodated. 
From 4 to 5 square feet should suffice for each lamb, 
hence a creep, I2 x 15 feet, should accommodate 36 to 45 
lambs, dependent on size and age. The aim should be, 
however, to have smaller creeps and to have one in each 
division where ewes are kept. The objection to large 
creeps lies chiefly in the fact that lambs congregate in 
them that dififer too much in age. The grading of the 
lambs with reference to size is more easily accomplished 
when the creeps are not large. 

The furnishings of a creep consist of suitable openings 
for ingress and egress on the part of the lambs, a trough 
in which grain and succulent food may be fed and a little 
manger or rack for holding the fodder. The opening or 
openings may consist of slats nailed up and down, but 
not far enough apart to give access to the ewes. Rollers 
are preferable for the openings to slats. They may be 
made, say, 3 inches in diameter and are set upright in the 
frame. They are fastened with springs above and be- 
low, which spread as the lamb passes between. They are, 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED III 

in a sense, a safeguard against tearing wool. The feed 
trough may be, say, 14 inches wide at the bottom, 16 
inches at the top and 2 to 3 inches deep. A board several 
inches wide should run along the trough and supported 
so that the lambs can eat beneath it but cannot at the 
same time get into the trough with their feet. The 
trough should have cross pieces underneath that will keep 
it above the level of the litter. 

The first lambs that come will be encouraged to eat 
sooner than they otherwise would by putting a little meal 
into the lamb's mouth when a few days old. The younger 
lambs will learn to eat from the example of the older ones. 
The meal should be put into the trough two or three 
times a day and any left removed as often. No kind of 
food should be left with them until it becomes stale. The 
danger is slight that lambs will eat too much, but it has 
been claimed that gouty rheumatism and paralysis more 
or less complete have been caused by the blood becom- 
ing so thick that it did not circulate properly. 

Young lambs properly fed will gain more in propor- 
tion to their weight than calves. The weight of the aver- 
age calf at birth will not be far from 81 pounds, and of 
the average lamb not far from nine pounds, or one-ninth 
of the former. High feeding that will secure 90 pounds 
of increase in the former, will secure 20 pounds or two- 
ninths as much in the latter. Lambs will also make at 
least as economical gains for the food consumed as 
young swine. 

Weaning lambs — The age at which lambs should be 
weaned is modified by such conditions as (i) the sea- 
son when they came into life, (2) the object for which 
they are grown, and (3) the disposition that is to be 
made of the dams. When lambs come early they may 
be given a longer period of nursing than when they come 
late, as in such instances the ewes have time enough to 
get into an improved condition after prolonged nursing 
before they are bred again. When grown for show pur- 



112 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

poses, and in some instances when grown for breeding, 
they are suckled longer than when grown simply for 
meat, with a view to get much size. When the ewes 
which suckle lambs are low in flesh and are soon to be 
bred again, it may be well to shorten somewhat the period 
during which the lambs nurse, even at the hazard of 
slightly retarding their development for the time being. 

The usual period during which lambs nurse covers 
about 5 months, or a little less than that. The ewes are 
thus given two months and more, in some instances, in 
which to recuperate before being bred again. The period 
of nursing may be shortened considerably should the 
necessity for doing so arise, by giving the lambs a suffi- 
cient grain supplement, or it may be likewise extended 
by giving a grain supplement to the ewes. 

The weaning of the lambs is abrupt rather than grad- 
ual. To wean lambs gradually as calves are sometimes 
weaned, and also swine, would involve much labor, for 
which there would probably be no adequate recompense. 
The method almost universally adopted, therefore, is to 
remove the lambs quite away from the ewes, and if possi- 
ble far enough away so that their bleating will not reach 
the ewes. When removed thus far from the lambs, the 
latter will dry more quickly than if they heard and 
answered the calling of the lambs. 

The weaning season also usually furnishes a good 
time for grading the rams. When ram and ewe lambs 
have run together up to the time of weaning they should 
then be separated, otherwise the females may become 
pregnant, a result that would be most undesirable. The 
weaning season also furnishes a suitable time for select- 
ing the females to be retained for breeding. These are 
then separated from the others which are to be sold, as 
the food subsequently given to these two classes may 
dififer materially. In some instances the necessity may be 
present for further sub-grading the lambs to be sold ac- 
cording to the disposal that is to be made of them. 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED II3 

Food for lambs when weaned — When lambs are 
weaned, they should, if possible, be put upon pastures 
fresh, succulent and nutritious. Frequently the ordinary 
grasses at such a time are dry, but the second growth of 
clover is then at its best, and it furnishes a very suitable 
pasture for lambs. In anticipation of the weaning sea- 
son, winter rye may be sown in the North and cowpeas 
in the South, so that these may be ready for grazing when 
the lambs are to be weaned. No plant, however, has 
equal suitability to such grazing as the dwarf essex rape, 
and none can be furnished in better season at such a 
time. When well-grown rape is on hand in plentiful sup- 
ply, ordinarily it is not necessary to feed any grain sup- 
plement. But much care should be exercised when first 
turning the lambs out into the rape, lest there should be 
loss from bloating (see p. 193). 

Usually lambs for show purposes should be given a 
liberal grain supplement in addition to the pasture or the 
soiling food to which they may have access. When am- 
ple rape pastures are not on hand, lambs of both sexes 
which are to be sold for breeding should get a grain sup- 
plement. To take the market properly they should be of 
good size and also in good flesh. Lambs that are to be 
sold for meat will usually profit by a grain ration when 
they are to be sold early, but when retained for winter 
fattening, this may not be necessary when the grazing 
is good. Nor is it necessary under like conditions for ewe 
lambs chosen to replenish the flock. 

The basic food in the grain supplement for lambs 
that are to be set apart for breeding is oats, and for being 
ready for the block it is corn. But barley, speltz, rye and 
millet may all be used more or less in lieu of corn ; oats 
alone will furnish a good grain supplement for the former, 
but corn is too strong a food to feed alone to the latter. 
Among grain supplements fed to lambs retained for 
breeding the following will be found suitable : Oats alone, 
oats and bran, the latter not to exceed 33 per cent by 



114 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

weight of the mixture, as lambs are not particularly fond 
of bran ; oats and wheat in the proportions of, say, three 
and one parts respectively. Among those fed to lambs 
which are to be sent to the block are the following: Corn 
and bran, of which not more than 33 per cent shall be 
bran ; corn, bran and oil cake in the proportions of, say 
six, two, and one parts by weight. Oats fed freely along 
with corn at the first will add much to its suitability, but 
later if oats should be dear, they may be gradually elim- 
inated from the ration. The quantity to feed will man- 
ifestly be much influenced, first, by the character of the 
grazing, and, second, by the disposition that is to be made 
of the lambs. It is seldom necessary to feed more than a 
pound per animal per day, and usually half that amount 
will suffice. 

When lambs have not been fed grain previously to the 
weaning season, they may not begin to eat it at once. In 
such instances some grain should be kept in a trough 
placed where the lambs are much inclined to congregate 
when taking rest. They will soon learn to eat. No such 
difficulty arises with lambs that have taken grain at an 
earlier age. It is usually most convenient to feed the 
lambs in the field. A very simple feeding trough may be 
made by nailing together two-inch boards from 6 to 7 
inches wide, so as to make a V, and supporting the same 
at a suitable height by 2 x 4-inch scantlings nailed 
together like the legs of a sawhorse. The height from the 
ground should be made to conform to the size of the 
lambs. One end of the trough should be left open to 
allow water to escape. A narrow strip, say, 1x2 inches 
and not less than 3 to 4 feet long, should be nailed on 
edge against the scantlings that support the trough and 
just at the base of the same. The object is to prevent 
the lambs from overturning the trough should they rub 
against it. 

Castrating lambs — The best age for castrating lambs 
is when they are about three days old. In any event cas- 




LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED II5 

tration should not be deferred beyond the age of three 
weeks. The lambs will suffer less from the operation 
the younger they are after they are well on their feet. 
Of course, it may be done later, as late even as the 
autumn, but the hazard in- 
creases with advancing age 
and the benefits decrease. 

Very substantial benefits 
arise from the early castration 
of the lambs that are to be 
grown for meat ; that is, if they 

'^ ^ J. \ r Im r^ FIG. 6— FEEDING RACK FOR 

are not disposed oi until after lambs 

the weaning season. It is not 

thought to be necessary to castrate lambs sent to the 
block while yet nursing. First, they attain to a 
greater size, especially after the age arrives when 
they become capable of breeding. After that age 
is reached, castrated lambs are more restful, and so make 
better gains ; second, they are more easily managed when 
castrated. Both sexes may then run together at all times 
without the hazard that the females shall become preg- 
nant. Third, the early castration results in the produc- 
tion of a better carcass. It prevents undue development 
of bone, especially in the head and neck, and also lessens 
muscular development about the neck and breast where 
the meat is not specially valuable. It also stops develop- 
ment in the organs of generation, which, of course, are 
practically valueless for food. Buyers discount severely 
uncastrated lambs. During recent years at the Buffalo 
and New York markets, the discrimination against ram 
lambs uncastrated after the mating season has been fully 
one dollar per lamb. The methods adopted in castrating 
young lambs are various. Of these three may be given. 
By the first, the scrotum is cut off close to the body with 
a pair of strong shears. This should be done when the 
lamb is not more than two or three days old. Unless in 
the case of lambs that are to be shorn, this method an- 



Il6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

swers at least reasonably well, and it is certainly the 
easiest method of castration by far that can be adopted. 
It has been objected to on the ground that the lambs 
show some stiffness of gait for a time after the operation, 
which is cited as evidence that it must so far retard de- 
velopment. 

By the second method, the operator does the work 
alone. The lamb is laid on the left side, and the operator 
presses the lamb against his knees and keeps it in position 
with his elbows which leaves both hands free. With a 
sharp knife he cuts off a portion of the base of the scro- 
tum, including the lining membrane. The testicles are 
thus exposed, and when pressed out by the hand are 
seized and drawn out one at a time by the teeth. 

By the third method two persons are engaged in the 
work. One catches the lamb, gathers the feet in his 
hands and then presses its back firmly against his chest. 
A second person then cuts ofT a portion of the scrotum 
as in the second instance and similarly draws out the 
testicles. No other method will remove the testicles so 
easily as when they are firmly grasped by the teeth. 
Should there be any repugnance to removing them thus, 
they may be grasped by the hand or by forceps in the 
hand, drawn out, and in the case of older animals the cord 
when drawn far enough is severed with the knife. 

Should lambs be purchased for winter feeding in the 
autumn that are uncastrated, it may be more profitable to 
subject them to castration before feeding than to feed 
them as rams. The work may be done as follows : A 
strong person catches the lamb, places him on his but- 
tock with his back leaning against the one who holds him. 
The holder of the animal takes a hind leg in each hand 
and draws the legs up until the lamb is almost lifted from 
the ground. The knees should be pressed tightly against 
the lamb to prevent struggling. A second person catches 
the end of the scrotum in his right hand and with the left 
pushes the testicles down against the abdomen and keeps 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 11/ 

them there by the grip of the left hand. He then cuts 
across the sack close to the end of the testicles, but only 
cuts through one ply of skin. He then catches the testi- 
cles, one at a time, in his right hand and with the left 
pushes back all extraneous matter, following the cord 
down close to the abdomen. The cord is then firmly 
grasped in the left hand and drawn slowly by prying 
gently toward the thigh until it is quite drawn away. 
Then with a long knife the scrotum is cut clean ofif where 
the first cut was made. Should the season of flies not be 
past, a small amount of spirits of turpentine may be 
poured into the sac. Tar smeared over the wounded parts 
will also aid in keeping flies away. Mature rams are sel- 
dom castrated. When thus dealt with clamps are com- 
monly used. 

When lambs are castrated, the early morning should 
1)6 chosen for the operation, as the opportunity is then 
afiforded of giving them such attentions as may be neces- 
sary during the day, and the same is true of the time 
chosen for docking lambs referred to below. It is im- 
portant that the knife used be sterilized, and also the 
hands of the operator, before castration is begun. The 
sheds should also be freshly bedded if the lambs are con- 
fined to them at the time, to lessen the hazard of germ 
contamination that may cause trouble. Usually antisep- 
tics are not used when young lambs are castrated. A 
three per cent solution of carbolic acid in water will an- 
swer the purpose should it be desired to use an antiseptic. 

Docking lambs — Whatever benefits may have ac- 
crued to sheep in a wild state, it is now the almost uni- 
versally accepted view of those who keep sheep that under 
domestic conditions the tail should be removed while the 
animals are young. This view rests upon the belief, first, 
that under domestication the tail can render no substan- 
tial benefit to the sheep which possesses it, and second, 
that its presence is frequently injurious because of the 
filth that accumulates around and beneath it when sheep 



Il8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

are being grazed on succulent pastures. Where such filth 
accumulates in warm weather, it encourages the presence 
of flies, the eggs of which may develop into maggots and 
work much harm. Modern taste also looks upon the 
sheep that is docked as being more symmetrical and hand- 
some than sheep with the tail full length. 

The tail should be docked — that is, cut — while lambs 
are only a few days old. When done at such an age the 
development of the lamb is not hindered. The danger of 
loss from bleeding is almost wholly obviated. Such a re- 
sult is by no means uncommon where the lambs are not 
docked until several weeks old, unless steps should be 
taken to prevent it. Valuable lambs docked thus late 
have bled to death. This, however, can be prevented 
by searing the wound with a hot iron. Opinions dififer as 
to the advisability of castrating and docking lambs at the 
same time. Although more time is used in performing 
these operations separately, it would seem reasonable to 
conclude that the shock given to the system would be 
lessened by performing these operations at different 
times. 

The cutting of the tail may be done by one person or 
by two. When done by one, the lamb is taken under the 
left arm and the loose skin is drawn upward toward the 
body near the base of the tail. It is then severed with 
a pair of strong scissors held in the right hand. A little 
powdered blue stone dusted on to the wound will tend 
to stanch the bleeding. The skin is then drawn down 
so as to partially cover the wound, which heals over more 
neatly and smoothly than when the skin is not thus drawn 
back before severing the tail. 

W^hen two persons perform the docking the lamb is 
held by one and the tail is severed by the other. The 
lamb may be held by pressing its back firmly against the 
breast of the person holding it, the legs being held in his 
hands, when a second person severs the tail. By another 
method, and a better one, the person holding the lamb 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED II9 

places its buttock on a block of suitable height, and a 
second person removes the tail by severing it with a chisel 
and mallet. The length of the stump left varies some- 
what with the breed. Fashion has an influence in deter- 
mining this. The tails of the Merino types are cut quite 
short. The tails of English Dorsets are sometimes left 
as long as 3 inches. The average length of the stump 
left is about 1^4 to i^ inches, measured on the underside. 

Registration of pure-bred lambs — Where any consid- 
erable number of lambs are expected each lamb should 
be marked at as early a date as possible to avoid the haz- 
ard of loss of identity. This will prove helpful to the 
shepherd in caring for a flock even of grade lambs, and in 
the case of pure-bred lambs it is essential as a guide to 
correct registration when the time comes for registering 
the lambs. Some shepherds adopt the plan of tracing 
identity by placing small nicks in the ears according to 
a certain rule which has been found practicable to use in a 
flock of any size. But there is probably no better method 
of preserving identity than by marking the lambs with 
shepherds' marking ink, as identity may then be traced 
on sight. The marking consists in painting on the back 
of the lamb with a small brush the number corresponding 
to the ear tag of the ewe. This should be done while the 
lamb is not yet more than two or three days old. As the 
ink fades with time it may be necessary to renew it once 
before the lamb is weaned. The registration of pure-bred 
lambs should be deferred long enough to demonstrate the 
character of the individual development. Such develop- 
ment may be of a character so inferior that it would be 
unwise to retain the lambs for breeding, hence it would 
also be unwise to register them. The nature of the develop- 
ment will certainly be known by the time that the lambs are 
weaned, and even before the time. The registering of the 
lambs, therefore, should not be deferred beyond the sea- 
son of weaning. 

If lambs are not registered the first season, the dan- 



120 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ger is imminent that their identity will be lost. If prop- 
erly ear-tagged as soon as registered, the identity of the 
animal will not be lost as long as the ear tag retains its 
place in the ear, the registration certificate being at the 
same time kept on file. As it is possible, however, that 
the ear tag may be lost, although this happens but sel- 
dom, it should be renewed as soon as this is discovered, 
using, of course, the same number as the one lost. Ear 
tags should not be put in the ears of young lambs, as the 
weight of the ear tag may make the ear unshapely. 

The owner of sheep who may desire to register them 
and who is not yet informed as to how he should proceed 
should write to the secretary of the association which 
represents that particular breed, asking for the desired in- 
formation. The reply will furnish all that is necessary to 
know to enable the person to record his sheep. Many of 
the associations furnish ear tags corresponding to the 
numbers in the certificates of registration, and these 
should at once be inserted in the ears of the sheep. The 
rules of many of the associations compel the registration 
of lambs within the year in which they are born, and this 
rule is doubtless a wise one. 

Miscellaneous considerations — It sometimes happens 
that the milk of a ewe highly fed is so rich and so abun- 
dant that the lamb takes more than it can properly digest. 
The principle is the same as when the Jersey cow gives 
milk too rich in butter fat for the best needs of her calf. 
Lambs are sometimes lost from this cause. When the 
lamb is unable to take all the milk, a lamb in need of 
more milk should be allowed to suck the ewe once or 
twice a day for a time. This will prevent the young lamb 
from getting an excess of milk. Should a lamb be sepa- 
rated from its dam through any mischance for any con- 
siderable time, to prevent derangement in the digestion 
of the lamb, the ewe should be partially milked out before 
the lamb is allowed to suck. 

Some shepherds store up some dry clean earth in the 



LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 121 

autumn and place it where the lambs may nibble at it if 
they care to do so. When roots are fed to lambs in winter, 
it has been noticed that lambs will eat some of the earth 
adhermg to them. Observing this fact has doubtless led 
to the provision referred to. While no harm should fol- 
low such provision, the measure of its efficacy is yet an 
undetermined factor. 

Lambs should be amply supplied with water from 
the time that they will take it, which will be from the age 
of, say, two weeks and onward. Such provision is seldom 
made for lambs, notwithstanding its importance. It can 
usually be best provided for them by placing it in a low 
vessel within the creep and renewing it frequently. The 
necessity for water decreases with increase in the con- 
sumption of field roots. 

In almost every flock of ewes at the lambing season 
some young lambs will be found that are not getting 
enough milk from their dams to make them grow vigor- 
ously. It is quite possible to help them materially by 
keeping a nurse cow at hand from which they can get a 
good meal once or twice a day. A docile, low-set cow of 
the Jersey type should prove very suitable. One person 
should have the cow in charge and another should man- 
age the lambs. It is not difficult usually to learn a hun- 
gry lamb thus to help itself. The effect on the growth 
of the lambs will be very marked. 



CHAPTER VII 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 

In this chapter the following subdivisions of the 
question relating to the feeding and care of breeding ewes 
are discussed: (i) Ewes from the time that they are 
weaned as lambs until bred ; (2) Management at the 
breeding season ; (3) Changing from autumn pasture to 
winter quarters; (4) The ideal conditions for wintering; 
(5) Grading the flock ; (6) Food prior to the time of 
lambing; (7) Exercise for breeding ewes when pregnant; 
(8) Caring for ewes at the time of lambing; (9) Food for 
ewes subsequently to lambing; (10) From the sheds to 
the pastures; (11) Management when on pasture; (12) 
Management when weaning the lambs; (13) The man- 
agement of ewes to be discarded; and (14) The miscella- 
neous attentions that are more or less called for. The 
importance of giving proper care to the ewes cannot be 
easily over-estimated because of the important bearing 
that it has upon the profits. The attention called for, 
though greater at certain seasons, cannot be withheld 
at any time without hazard to the owner. 

Ewes from weaning until bred — There is almost a 
consensus of opinion as to the wisdom of deferring the 
breeding of the ewes so that they will not drop their first 
lambs until two years old. This opinion is based on the 
results that usually follow the breeding of ewes so that 
they produce lambs at one year old. These results are 
usually: (i) Lambs not up to the standard in size and 
inherent powers of development ; (2) inability on the part 
of the ewes to provide for their lambs while nursing them 
as compared with that of ewes not bred at so early an 
3-ge ; (3) ultimate lessening in size and vigor of the aver- 
age in the flock. But it may not be correct to claim that 

122 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I23 

such early breeding should never be practiced. It is prac- 
ticed more or less in the south of England by the breed- 
ers of Hampshire Downs, and to a less extent by the 
breeders of some of the other breeds. It is believed that 
the practice tends to promote early maturing and also 
affects prolificacy favorably. But the conditions in the 
south of England are highly favorable to the production 
of succulent foods so necessary as an aid to rapid growth 
in lambs, whether fed directly or through the ewes. 
\\'here such foods are not plentiful during much of the 
year, ewes should not be allowed to produce lambs until 
two years old, and in the case of Merinos it may in some 
instances be wiser to defer such production for one more 
year. 

The food and care called for subsequent to weaning 
will be influenced by the fact as to whether the lambs are 
bred the same autumn, or not until the following autumn. 
\\"hen bred as lambs, more of concentrated food should 
be given during the autumn subsequent to weaning, and 
also during all of the following winter, the reasons for 
which will be apparent. In any event, the lambs should in 
nearly all instances be given some concentrates from the 
time that they are weaned until the following spring, but 
to this there are some exceptions. These include condi- 
tions which furnish in plentiful supply of such pastures as 
rape until winter closes in and of field roots during the 
winter. The aim should be to select the ewe lambs for 
breeding when they are weaned, and to separate them 
from the lambs that are to be fattened, as the treatment 
called for by these two classes may differ somewhat. In 
the absence of rape pastures, succulent blue grass and 
winter rye are good. When grain is fed, oats, with a 
small amount of wheat bran added, are excellent. But 
a small amount of any of the other cereals will answer. 
The grain is usually fed but once a day, and seldom in 
excess of one-half pound to one pound per animal. 

During the winter, the aim should be to keep the 



124 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

lambs separate from the pregnant ewes, as the latter will 
call for a different ration. The aim should be to keep 
them growing- and "sappy" without laying on too much 
fat. This will follow if they can have an abundant sup- 
ply of roots, even in the absence of grain, especially if 
the fodder fed is good. In the absence of field roots, some 
grain will prove helpful. But when fine, well-cured clover 
and alfalfa of tender growth are fed, the additional grain 
called for will be very limited. Almost any of the small 
grains will answer, especially when a small quantity of 
wheat bran, or in its absence oilcake, is added. The 
amount of grain to feed should be determined by the con- 
dition of the ewes. In the absence of field roots, two or 
three pounds of good corn silage daily will be helpful. 

From winter on until the mating season, such want 
no other food than ordinary pasture. It may not be neces- 
sary at such a time to keep them in pastures separate 
from those grazed by the ewes which are nursing their 
lambs. In some instances, however, it may be desirable 
to give them pastures less bountiful than those occupied 
by the latter, to prevent them from reaching that stage 
of obesity which would be unfavorable to impregnation. 

Management at the breeding season — It is a matter 
of considerable importance that the ewes shall mate so 
as to drop lambs approximately at the time desired and 
within a reasonably short period. The object for which 
they are grown will then be more fully realized, the labor 
of caring for them will be less and uniformity in the flock 
will be better maintained. The flockmaster may not al- 
ways be able to accomplish this, because of the extent 
to which the weather during the season afifects pastures, 
but he may adopt measures that will prove a material aid 
in the direction desired. 

The time at which the ewes will mate may be con- 
trolled more readily when the lambs have been weaned 
early in the season. Opportunity is then given for the 
ewes to recover from the reduced flesh resulting from the 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 25 

nursing of their lambs. Such a condition will be acceler- 
ated by pastures that are rich, succulent and plentiful. 
Where these are not forthcoming to the degree desired, 
resource must be had to feeding grain. But the system 
followed will be modified materially by the conditions 
under which the animals are kept. 

When sheep are kept under extensive conditions, as 
on the range or on rugged pastures, it may not be prac- 
ticable to furnish any succulent food. Under such con- 
ditions the shepherd can do but little toward hastening 
the breeding. Usually, however, it is not desired to has- 
ten it, as the lambs cannot come before the grasses have 
made a start the following spring. Under semi-range 
conditions it may be possible to furnish supplemental 
food that will modify the time within which the ewes will 
mate. 

On the arable farm the aim should be to have the 
ewes mate when the system is building up. The breed- 
ing organs sharing in such increase are stimulated into 
action. Food is the chief influence in bringing about such 
renovation. Where ewes can have access to abundant 
rape pastures pretty well grown, they will soon come in 
heat. Other succulent and nutritious pastures, such as 
clover, will exercise a similar influence, but not in an 
equal degree. Wliere pastures sufficiently stimulating 
may not be had, then the process known as flushing may 
be resorted to. It consists in feeding grain for two to 
four weeks before the mating is desired. Almost any 
kind of grain will answer. Some shepherds favor feeding 
barley and wheat. Corn and rye are probably least in 
favor for such feeding. The quantity to feed may be put 
at from one-half to one pound per animal daily. 

It is also considered that, in warm climates, the mat- 
ing season will be hastened by shearing the ewes just 
after their lambs are weaned. While it is probably true 
that such shearing does exert an influence in the direc- 
tion sought, it is questionable if the practice is likely to 



126 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

become general. It involves labor, and in the meantime 
the v^ool does not sell for so good a price. 

The condition of the ewes at the time of mating is 
supposed, and w^ith good reasons, to exercise some influ- 
ence on the number of the lambs that will be born. A 
vigorous condition of the ewes at the time of mating is 
favorable to fecundity. It is not the only influence, how- 
ever, that favors an abundant lamb crop (see p. 465). 

From the pastures to winter quarters — The change 
from pastures to winter quarters will be modified by the 
conditions such as relate to climate and peculiarities of 
season. Under some conditions the first snows remain 
and close abruptly the pasturing season. Under other 
conditions, the first snows usually melt, so that grazing 
may be resumed for a time, and under yet other condi- 
tions it may be continued during much of the winter. 
The aim should be to have grazing continue as long as 
this may be practicable, not so much in order to save 
stored foods as to give the sheep that exercise that is so 
helpful to the maintenance of the flock in a good condition 
of health and vigor. Some winters in areas not far north 
sheep can graze on the pastures during much of the win- 
ter, a condition that highly favors vigor in the lambs. 

When changing from grazing to winter food given 
in the sheds, three things should be guarded against. The 
first is eating frozen food, the second exposure to cold 
rain or sleet storms and the third sudden changes in the 
food. 

It is but seldom that harm comes from grazing sheep 
on pastures in late autumn in which the old and new 
growths are mingled, as, for instance, a blue grass pas- 
ture that has not been closely grazed in the summer. The 
dry grass mingling with the green seems to counteract 
the injury that might result from feeding on frozen green 
grass. When, however, the sheep feed upon such food 
as frozen rape or clover, and also other green food, the 
hazard is present that such ailments as bloat, colic and an 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 12/ 

inflamed condition of the digestive organs may result, 
followed by death within a short period. Such hazard 
may be present by giving the sheep or lambs so grazed 
either grain or palatable fodder before turning them out 
to graze. Where the sheep are much grazed on such food, 
inattention to this matter may result in severe losses. 

Dry snow falling on sheep will harm them but little, 
providing they may have the shelter of a grove or bluff to 
protect them when driving wind accompanies the storm. 
But it is different when they are exposed to cold rain or 
sleet storms, especially when they are prolonged. The 
Merino types suffer the least from such exposure, and the 
breeds with wool not possessed of marked density the most. 
The wool of the former is not only dense, but the wool 
fibers are glued together at the outer ends so that the rain 
cannot easily penetrate the fleece. In the more open 
fleeces it may reach the body more or less, and the chilling 
that follows may result in lung trouble that soon ends 
fatally. In some instances these storms may come in 
the night and cannot be certainly forecasted, but when 
they do, no time should be lost in getting the sheep under 
cover with the breaking of the dawn. 

When succulent food, as field roots, have been pro- 
vided, sudden change in the essential character of the 
foods can be avoided. The roots will provide, in part at 
least, the succulence furnished previously by the autumn 
pastures. But should the change be sudden and abrupt 
from the pastures to the sheds, in the absence of field roots 
and silage, the aim should be to feed some oilcake or a 
little grain with considerable bran in it to ward off the 
tendency to constipation that usually accompanies the 
feeding of all dry food. 

In a large majority of instances, partial grazing may 
be continued after the sheep have been brought into win- 
ter quarters. The pastures may have only a light cover- 
ing of snow, or in certain parts they may be bare. While 
it may be necessary to feed the sheep morning and even- 



128 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ing, continued access to the pastures will be helpful to 
the sheep. They may be able to find succulence in the 
grass thus gleaned to render unnecessary the feeding of 
roots, ensilage, bran or oilcake in order to keep the bowels 
in tone. 

Ideal conditions for wintering ewes — The ideal loca- 
tion for a sheep shed calls for land that is well drained, 
protection from injurious winds, ample opportunity to 
furnish yards and paddocks, and easy and convenient ac- 
cess to the pastures. It may not be possible to secure all 
these conditions in the degree to which they may be de- 
sired, but the more nearly that they can be approximated, 
the more assured will be the success that may be looked 
for (see page 322). In the matter of protection the breed- 
ing ewes must be given the right of way, as males and 
ewes not breeding do not necessarily call for conditions 
of environment equally favorable in the winter season. 

The ideal shed or shelter for breeding ewes must 
have in it several divisions, permanent or temporary, for 
the use of the ewes that rear lambs, in addition to other 
divisions that may be necessary for the sheep carried over 
that will not produce lambs (see page 335). This is 
necessary because of the needs of the ewes and also of 
the lambs at different stages of development in the latter. 
Where the flocks are small, these divisions may be tem- 
porary, but with large flocks it will be more convenient 
to have them permanent. Where the ewes and lambs 
are kept, it is specially important to have an abundance 
of sunlight. 

The ideal yard for the ewes and lambs must be pro- 
tected. This is indispensable. It is also, in a sense, a 
necessity that it shall be located on the sunny side of the 
shed. It is more convenient when the yards have divi- 
sions in the sheds, but this is not always necessary. When 
it is necessary these can be made by the use of movable 
materials (see page 21). Paddocks are not so much 
necessary for breeding ewes as for rams, as the paddocks 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I2g 

do not usually furnish grazing at that season when the 
ewes are confined to the sheds. 

Where the ewes can have access more or less to the 
pastures in the winter season, the advantage from hav- 
ing the pastures not too distant will be at once appar- 
ent. To have a winter pasture near may be in some in- 
stances of sufficient importance to make this question a 
subject of careful thought. The more stern the winter 
climate, the more important is it to have such a pasture 
near the sheds. 

The grading of the flock — When the flock is small, as 
when, for instance, it does not number more than 20 to 
30 ewes, and when these are all strong and vigorous, but 
little grading of the ewes may be necessary. But it is 
different with large flocks. In any event the aim should 
be to put the ewe lambs retained for breeding in quarters 
separate from the breeding ewes, as the food best suited 
to the needs of both is not the same, although in some 
instances the difference may not be marked. Where many 
ewes are kept for breeding, they will not be alike in age, 
in the amount of flesh they carry, and in all-round vigor. 
Where such is the case, they should be divided into lots 
that will admit of feeding each according to its precise 
needs. The basis of the grading may rest upon condition 
of flesh or age or on both. As the winter advances and 
the lambing season approaches, the necessity for regrad- 
ing may exist, based upon the advanced condition of 
pregnancy or the opposite. Of course, after the lambs 
begin to come, further regrading may be necessary to 
meet the needs of the ewes and lambs, based upon the age 
of the latter. Some grading may also be necessary for 
the rams, as when, for instance, ram lambs and older 
males are wintered over, the food requirements for the 
two being different. Any selected for feeding for the 
block must also have separate quarters. 

Where the flocks are large, the divisions, or some 
of them that make such grading possible, should be per- 



130 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

manent. Where the flock is small, permanent divisions 
are less necessary. In any case more or less use may be 
made of the feed racks used in feeding to increase the 
number of the pens that may be called for. This should 
be kept in mind when the movable racks are being made, 
and they should be constructed accordingly. With in- 
crease in the permanent divisions comes the necessity for 
increase in the temporary or permanent divisions in the 
yards. 

The limit of the number of sheep that can be success- 
fully kept in one division of the shed cannot be given ex- 
cept by approximation, as more of some breeds may be 
kept together without hazard than of other breeds. The 
fine wool breeds can be kept in larger flocks than other 
breeds. It would seem safe to say that the percentage of 
loss in sheep increases more or less with increase in the 
size of the flock. 

When a small flock of sheep is kept on the farm, say 
20 to 30 head, the percentage of loss under normal con- 
ditions should be practically eliminated. Except with the 
fine wooled breeds, the aim should be to keep not more 
than say 50 breeding ewes in the division of the sheep 
house. 

Food prior to the time of lambing — For all classes of 
sheep, but especially for breeding ewes, the fodders fed 
should be possessed of the following characteristics: (i) 
They should be of fine growth and leafy. To have them 
thus calls for special care in growing them. Corn and 
sorghum fodders, for instance, should be sown more 
thickly, to insure fine growth, when grown to feed sheep 
than when grown to feed cattle. The finer varieties of 
clover also should be sought rather than the coarser. (2) 
They should be cut early and well cured. Sheep will not 
consume woody material in the form of dry fodder, hence 
an early stage of cutting is necessary and also careful cur- 
ing to prevent a woody condition of the fodder and to pre- 
serve its palatability. (3) They should include variety. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I3I 

Sheep more than other quadrupeds seem to crave variety 
summer and v^nnter. Though alfalfa of fine growth 
should form the bulk of the diet fed to them, they will at 
the same time consume considerable quantities of well- 
cured wheat straw. 

Leguminous fodders have highest adaptation for all 
classes of sheep, but especially for pregnant ewes. No 
class of roughage probably is superior to alfalfa, grown 
thickly, alsike clover and also the common red clover. 
Hay produced by the common vetch is excellent. That 
from the sand vetch is not quite so good. Hay from the 
Canada field pea and oats is excellent. That from the 
cowpea is good if well cured. Hay from millet cut when 
the earliest heads begin to tint, and cured in the cock, an- 
swers well to feed once a day, but it should not form the 
sole fodder for any long period. Hay from Russian brome 
grass, being leafy, is one of the best fodders furnished by 
the grasses. Hay composed of timothy and clover, grown 
thickly and cut early is very good, but that from timothy 
alone, if coarse, and especially if cut late, is not well 
suited to the needs of sheep. 

Pea straw well cured stands at the head of the list 
of the varieties of straw. When not coarse, cut promptly 
on maturing and cured without exposure to rain, it fur- 
nishes food that sheep greatly relish, but if cut late and 
exposed to heavy rain, it is not of much value as fodder. 
Next to pea straw in value is that obtained from oats 
The value of straw furnished by any of the cereals is 
much dependent on the early stage of maturity at which 
it is cut. Bean straw is excellent when well saved, but 
is usually limited in supply. Rye straw is probably the 
least valuable straw for sheep because of its woody char- 
acter. Corn fodder finely grown and well preserved an- 
swers well as a part of the fodder ration during the late 
autumn and midwinter months, but corn stover is not so 
good because of its coarseness. Finely grown sorghum 



132 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

will be relished, but much waste will follow from feeding 
sorghum that is coarse. 

Before the lambing season it is not usual to feed 
roughage more than twice a day in the form of hay. But 
the practice is commendable which adds straw of the 
cereals for the noon feed. What is left of this in the feed 
racks should be used as litter to spread over the sheds or 
yards. It may be necessary to supplement this with other 
litter, as a comfortable and dry bed is greatly conducive 
to the welfare of sheep in winter. In some instances corn 
fodder, sorghum fodder or Kafir corn fodder is strewn 
on the frozen ground for the noon feed, that the sheep 
may get food and exercise while consuming it. Under 
other conditions, it is fed in racks, usually out of doors. 

In the larger portion of the United States, succulence 
can only be furnished for sheep in two forms — as field 
roots or as silage. But in areas far southward, they may 
graze during much of the winter on foods sown to pro- 
vide such grazing, as rape and kale, and the same is also 
true of the Pacific slope west of the Cascade Mountains. 
Field roots are more suitable than corn ensilage, but in 
the absence of the former the latter will be materially 
helpful. Succulence in some form is, in a sense, a neces- 
sity, and the aim should be to provide it on the arable 
farm. In its absence, it is usually advantageous to feed 
bran or oil cake along with the grain fed. It is not neces- 
sary to feed a large amount of succulence before the 
lambing season, not more than three or four pounds per 
day of roots or silage ; the latter must be free from 
mold, or abortion and other ills may follow. Some feed- 
ers use more roots, but it has been noticed that when 
large quantities are fed along with clover hay, the lambs 
are large but deficient in vitality at birth. This is less 
apparent when straw is used freely as a part of the fod- 
der ration. The roots are sliced or pulped, as a rule, be- 
fore feeding them, and are most frequently fed directly, 
and without admixture, but in some instances grain is 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 33 

fed at the same time. It is scarcely practicable to feed 
silage to a small flock of sheep, unless it is being fed also 
to other stock at the same time, as it cannot be kept in 
good condition, because of the small amount fed. 

When the roughage is of excellent quality, as when 
good clover is fed and when field roots are fed at the 
same time, it may not be necessary to feed much grain, 
or indeed any, until the lambing season is near at hand; 
but as ewes are ordinarily fed, they will profit from a 
small grain ration, say, not more than one-half to one 
pound per day, from the time that they are brought to the 
sheds, or even before that time should any loss of condi- 
tion be apparent. Almost any kind of grain will answer, 
although when the roughage is non-leguminous corn 
should not be fed. Oats will answer the best of all cereals, 
should these be fed without admixture. Some wheat bran 
or oilcake, say 20 per cent of bran or 10 per cent of oil- 
cake, will aid much in warding off constipation, that great 
menace to the well being of sheep in winter when on a 
dry diet. It would probably be correct to say that more 
of the troubles that afflict sheep in winter may be traced to 
this source than to any other single cause. 

Exercise for pregnant ewes — With all animals it 
would seem to be a law governing reproduction that, if 
the progeny are to be vigorous and strong, dams which 
bear them must have ample exercise while pregnant. 
Ample exercise, however, is a question of degree in exer- 
cise as applied to the various breeds. Modification of in- 
herent characters may so change the necessities of a breed 
that a much less degree of exercise will suffice than would 
have been enough at one time in the history of the breed. 
But some exercise for the dams is absolutely necessary 
for the well-being of the lambs which they bear. 

Sheep call for more exercise relatively than other 
farm animals, unless it be horses. When feeding in the 
pastures, they are continually on the move. It would be 
interesting to know how far they thus travel in a day. 



134 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

It would seem safe to say that, because of this inherent 
feature of their constitution, it would not be easy to give 
pregnant ewes too much exercise. 

When not sufficiently exercised the lambs come weak 
and the amount of nursing and care to enable them to 
survive is greatly increased. The lambs produced by 
sheep that are seldom housed are on their feet, strong and 
vigorous, within a few minutes of birth, while those from 
ewes over-housed may not live but for a short period. 
There is also trouble frequently with the ewes at the time 
of yeaning. But it must not be understood that ewes 
well managed cannot in any instances be confined to 
the yards and sheds the entire winter without producing 
the troubles indicated. Experience has shown this can 
be done, but experience has also shown that it is not a 
good practice to follow. 

How to secure the necessary exercise for pregnant 
ewes may be somewhat of a problem under some condi- 
tions, as, for instance, when the fields are covered for 
months in succession with deep snow. If confined en- 
tirely to the yards, the lambs will be lacking in vitality 
more or less, and if the ewes have been in poorly venti- 
lated quarters much of the time, the evil will be greatly 
aggravated. To encourage the ewes to take exercise, 
various devices have been resorted to, as making one or 
more roads with a snow plow, and strewing a little hay 
along these occasionally, or giving food in racks or other- 
wise in some sheltered spot not too near the shed. When 
the sheep can have access to the fields for any consider- 
able portion of the winter season, such devices to en- 
courage them to take exercise will not be necessary. Even 
though they obtain but little nutriment while they roam 
over the bare portions of the fields, they are getting the 
necessary exercise. 

Where the ground is usually bare more or less during 
the winter, the owner should aim to have a reserve grass 
pasture with a thick firm turf on which the ewes may find 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 35 

grazing when the snow is absent. The hazard from eat- 
ing frozen grass will not be present as it is in the autumn, 
for the sheep do not leave the sheds to graze until they 
have taken their morning meal. 

Caring for ewes at the lambing season — When ewes 
produce their lambs on the pastures, the problem of car- 
ing for them is much simplified. In good weather it may 
consist mainly in visiting the flock two or three times a 
day, to make sure that all is going well. Should the 
weather be stormy, however, the problem is much more 
complicated. It may be necessary to furnish shelter for 
the ewes with newly born lambs. If more than temporary 
aid is wanted for either ewes or lambs, both should be 
brought to the sheds. If a cold rain is threatened both 
ewes and lambs should be housed for the time being, as 
no exposure will bring harm to the lambs as quickly as 
exposure to cold rain, which at once finds its way through 
the short wool to the skin. 

Where the flock is large, a lambing pen is necessary, 
which should have in it a number of divisions, that may 
be permanent, or temporary, or both. The object is to 
keep the ewes and their young apart from the others un- 
til the lambs have been well started in life. Another plan 
encircles the ewe and her lambs with a crate without re- 
moving her from the sheds. This is done before or im- 
mediately after the lamb is born. The ewe thus managed 
will fret less than the one removed to the lambing pen, 
as in the former instance practically no change is made 
in the environment. When taken to the lambing pen the 
removal should be made when practicable two or three 
days before the lambs are expected (see page 336). 

If some ewes are already there, the ewes so removed 
will be less disturbed by the change. The objection to 
the use of crates as outlined above is the amount of space 
that they use, which in close quarters cannot be spared. 

During the first days after lambing food should be 
given to the ewes with much caution. Soon after the 



136 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ewe has been delivered of her lamb or lambs, she should 
be given water from which the chill has been removed. 
No change in the diet is called for other than that which 
relates to quantity. No harm can come to the ewes from 
taking all the fodder that they will eat such as they are 
accustomed to, but grain and field roots should be fed 
sparingly at first lest the milk flow should be over-stim- 
ulated. With gradual increase, the ewe may usually be 
put on what may be termed full feeding for a breeding 
ewe within 7 to 10 days from the birth of her lambs, and 
sometimes even sooner. 

Close attention should be given to the udder of a 
newly delivered ewe. In some instances it may be more 
or less inflamed when the lambs are born. In others, as 
when the milk flow is very plentiful, the lamb may take 
food from only one teat. In yet other instances, as when 
but little milk is present, the teats are made sore by the 
biting of the lambs in trying to get food. Frequent bath- 
ing with warm water and then anointing with some 
soothing unguent, as sweet oil, will prove helpful to an 
inflamed udder. Milking out occasionally the side of the 
udder neglected by the lamb, or what is better, to allow 
a needy lamb to help itself for a few times, will remove 
the difficulty. When the teats are thus made sore, it may 
be necessary to allow the lambs to nurse the ewe only a 
few times each day for a time. Should the wool around 
the udder make it difficult for the lamb to find the teat, 
it should be clipped away to the extent of removing the 
obstruction. 

As the number of the lambs increases, such increase 
brings with it more or less of diversity in age, and to meet 
the needs of these, the necessity for division increases 
accordingly. The aim should be to have the lambs which 
occupy each apartment as near of an age as may be found 
practicable under the conditions. This, however, becomes 
less important as the lambs grow older. After the first 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 37 

3 or 4 weeks they, and also their dams, may be given 
practically the same rations. 

Food subsequently to lambing — After the lambs are 
a few days old, it is very desirable that the dams shall 
milk freely, to stimulate growth in the former, as no sub- 
stitute can be found equal to the milk of the dam to stim- 
ulate growth in the lambs. To accomplish this all the 
food fed should be of good quality and ample for the need 
of the ewes. 

If the roughage provided for winter use is not equal 
in suitability for producing milk, that which is most suit- 
able for such a purpose should be saved, if possible, for 
feeding after the lambs have come. If the fodder is of 
the same kind and yet differs in quality, that of the best 
quality should be saved for feeding at such a time. For 
this stage of the feeding leguminous fodders will be found 
the most suitable and three feeds rather than two should 
be given daily. 

Under no conditions is the free feeding of succulent 
roots more helpful to sheep than when they are nursing 
their lambs, and under no conditions of feeding should it 
be fed more freely to them. Where the supply is abun- 
dant they may be given several pounds daily in the sliced 
or pulped form. For spring feeding mangels or sugar 
beets are very suitable, but any kind of roots well pre- 
served will serve the purpose. Corn ensilage is also good 
when of good quality and judiciously fed. It must be 
conceded, however, that it is not equal to field roots for 
such feeding. When fed in large quantities to ewes giv- 
ing milk, especially when rich in practically matured grain, 
it has been claimed that it tends to induce a somewhat 
heated or feverish condition of the system. But when fed 
in moderation, that is to say to the extent of not more 
than two or three pounds daily, especially in the absence 
of field roots, it has been found to be highly satisfactory. 
Some successful feeders make it substitute the noon feed 
of hay rather than feed it morning or evening. Corn sil- 



138 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

age is more in favor as a food for sheep that are being 
fattened than for breeding ewes. 

The concentrates fed may include any of the cereals, 
but to keep the ration in approximate balance the con- 
centrates should be chosen with a view to supplement 
what may be lacking in the roughage. As leguminous 
fodders are more commonly fed than other fodders to 
ewes that are nursing their lambs, it is in order to feed 
more of the grains rich in carbohydrates with such fod- 
ders. But should the fodder consist largely of such food 
as fodder corn and corn silage, the grain should be fed 
rich in protein. When leguminous fodders are fed, from 
say 50 to 60 per cent of the ration may be corn, but when 
opposite in character, bran should be fed freely with the 
grain. In the absence of field roots, wheat bran or oil- 
cake, or both, should be fed to keep the digestion in tone. 
A mixture of grains is always more relished than one kind 
of grain, at least under prolonged feeding. Along with 
leguminous fodders the following rations will be found 
suitable: (i) Corn or barley, wheat bran, oilcake, in the 
proportions of five, four and one parts by weight ; (2) 
oats, wheat bran and oilcake in the proportions of six, 
three and one parts; (3) oats and oilcake nine and one 
parts. 

The amount of grain to feed is influenced by the 
amount of the field roots or corn ensilage that is fed. 
With increase in the proportion of these, there may be 
decrease in the amount of grain fed. While the supply of 
the grain should be liberal, it will seldom be necessary 
to feed more than two pounds of grain per animal daily 
for prolonged feeding. The grain is fed whole. When 
much wheat bran is fed, it will be more readily consumed 
when fed on sliced or pulped roots, as sheep, especially 
when young, do not usually show great fondness for bran. 
The grain is commonly fed in two feeds daily, and it is not 
necessary to grind it except in the case of aged ewes 
whose teeth show signs of failing. Nor is it necessary to 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 39 

cut the fodder, as a rule, although cutting a portion of it 
and mixing it with grain may insure a greater consump- 
tion of the fodder. 

From the sheds to the pastures — The change from 
the sheds to the pastures should always be made with 
more or less caution, lest the digestion of the ewes and 
also of the lambs be unduly disturbed. A sudden change 
from all dry feed to all succulent food such as the early 
spring pastures furnish is almost certain to result in more 
or less scouring, and it will take away their appetite for 
other foods. The liability to such scouring will be greatly 
reduced if the ewes, accompanied by their lambs, and in- 
deed all classes of sheep, are given access when spring 
grazing begins to pastures that have not been grazed 
closely in the autumn, so that they cannot avoid consum- 
ing some of the dead grass while they graze. The dead 
grass counteracts the tendency to scouring caused by the 
fresh grass. 

When ewes with lambs are first turned out to graze, 
the time for grazing, not long at the first, should be grad- 
ually extended until they remain out all the day. The 
period covered by the change from all dry food to graz- 
ing only will be determined by such conditions as the kind 
of the grazing and its plentifulness. The change should 
be made as quickly as it can be made without injury to 
the flock, as grazing usually furnishes cheaper food than 
cured fodder and grain. When grazing begins, the re- 
duction in the food in the sheds properly commences with 
the roughage. There should be no anxiety to put the 
sheep on grazing until they have first taken a full morn- 
ing meal. The reduction in the roughage fed should keep 
pace with the disinclination of the sheep to consume it. 
With increase in the pasture consumed there should also 
be corresponding decrease in the succulent food, as field 
roots, if such is being fed. The grass, of course, provides 
the succulence, and in a cheaper form than it can be 
furnished from any other source. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES T4I 

The reduction in the feeding of grain should be more 
gradual than the reduction in the roughage fed. The rea- 
sons for this are: (i) That shrinkage which sometimes 
results from the lax condition of the digestion caused by 
the fresh grass is counteracted more or less by the grain 
fed ; (2) that sheep will eat grain for a much longer period 
than they will continue to eat roughage; (3) the lambs 
are thus given an opportunity to share in what is even 
more helpful to them than to the ewes. But when the 
pastures have become abundant and when the sheep have 
become quite accustomed to the change, it is doubtful 
if the further feeding of grain will be profitable. Reduc- 
tion should first begin with the evening feed of grain, 
for a reason that will be obvious. The quantity is 
gradually reduced until none is fed, and then reduction 
should be similarly carried on with the morning feed. 

A further important advantage resulting from a grad- 
ual change from the sheds to the pastures is found in the 
protection against exposure to hurtful influences that 
may arise from the lying of the lambs on the ground while 
yet cold and damp. They may thus be given the benefit 
of well-bedded yards to lie on until the ground has been 
warmed by the advance of spring. 

Management when on pasture — Ordinarily no addi- 
tional food is needed for the dams when on pasture, after 
the change from yard to field conditions has been com- 
pleted. This, of course, is on the assumption that the 
grazing is sufficient. But there may be instances when 
it may be desirable to feed such food as oilcake as a means 
of speedily adding fertility to the land. And there may 
be instances when it is desirable to sell the lambs as soon 
as they can be made ready for the market, and also the 
dams as quickly as possible thereafter. In such instances 
the feeding of grain to the dams on pasture would not 
only be justifiable but commendable. Whether it will 
prove profitable to feed grain subsequently to the wean- 



142 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ing of the lambs will depend upon conditions, as is shown 
below. 

Of course, it would be possible to supplement the 
grazing by feeding such soiling food as alfalfa, corn or 
sorghum. For such a use alfalfa has special adaptation, 
especially in those areas where it is irrigated and would 
as a result produce many cuttings in a season. When 
the conditions of cultivation become intensive in such 
areas and labor sufficiently plentiful, such a system of 
feeding sheep may be introduced. In the meantime, how- 
ever, but little soiling food is fed sheep except in the case 
of those that are maintained for some special use, as in 
the case of stock rams or sheep that are being fitted for 
exhibition. When soiling food is fed it should be put into 
racks to prevent waste. Some foods, as alfalfa and clover, 
when fed green, should first be wilted to avoid danger 
from bloat. 

Under existing conditions it has proved cheaper to 
supplement the grass pastures by growing other pas- 
tures with this end in view. Nearly all the cereals may 
be used to provide such grazing, whether sown alone or 
in certain combinations (see page 170). The great sav- 
ing in the labor involved has made this method of pro- 
viding supplemental food for ewes very much more 
popular than the method that supplies it in the form of 
soiling food. 

Management when weaning the lambs — When lambs 
are weaned, the method which takes them quite away 
from the ewes without permitting them to come together 
again is considered preferable to gradual weaning. Usu- 
ally all the lambs in a flock are weaned at the time, but 
there may be instances when it would be profitable to 
separate the younger lambs with their dams and allow 
them to take milk from their dams for a few weeks longer. 
This is desirable in proportion as the lambing season has 
been prolonged. The drying ofif of the ewes will be more 
quickly accomplished if the ewes and lambs are separated 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I43 

SO far that the bleating of the lambs will not be heard by 
the ewes. Such bleating when heard keeps in active play 
the maternal instinct, which tends to the continuance of 
milk secretion. 

The udders of the dams should be prcwnptly cared 
for at such a time. The milk should be partially but not 
wholly withdrawn from the udders as often as may be 
necessary for the comfort of the ewes and the safety of 
their udders. The frequency with which they should be 
milked and the number of the milkings called for will 
vary with the conditions. As a rule the udders should be 
examined on the second day after the lambs have been 
removed, or on the third day at the latest. The examina- 
tion will show that some of the ewes are so far dry that 
it is not necessary to draw any milk from them. It is not 
necessary, of course, to examine the udders of these again. 
Some may call for the removal of a little milk, but so 
little that it is evident these will not require a second 
milking, and they, along with the former, should be sep- 
arated from the other portion of the flock if practicable. 
The udders of some may show much distention, and from 
these a large portion of the milk should be withdrawn. 
The second examination need not be made for three or 
four days as a rule, when it may be necessary to remove 
more milk. In but rare instances is a third examination 
necessary. 

No sooner have the lambs been removed than the 
ewes should be put upon a spare diet until they are 
dried. The poorest grazing on the farm will be the best 
suited for the purpose. Where such grazing is not to be 
had, the ewes may be yarded and given dry roughage 
only. The flockmaster should exercise much care when 
drying oflf the ewes, as neglect at such a time may 
ruin the udders, which means that ewes thus affected can- 
not be used for future breeding. The best milkers in the 
flock, and, therefore, the best lamb raisers, are most in 
danger of such mishap. 



144 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Management of ewes to be discarded — The weaning 
season furnishes an opportune time for determining on 
which member of the flock shall be discarded. There 
may be instances when these should be sold at once. This 
will be in order, first, with ewes that suckled early lambs, 
and that are as a result of heavy grain feeding in a con- 
dition of good flesh when the lambs are weaned ; and, 
second, when at the time of the autumn weaning of the 
lambs, aged ewes are to be discarded in the absence of 
such grazing as rape on which to fatten them. The lat- 
ter when sold thus may bring only a low price, and yet 
it may be more profitable to sell them thus than to try 
to fatten them. 

Ewes are usually in a somewhat lean condition at the 
weaning season, and they are not easily fattened when 
so old that their teeth have begun to fail. No method of 
making them ready for the market has been found supe- 
rior to that which fattens them on rape pasture. Such a 
pasture well advanced in growth should fit them for the 
market in, say two months from the time when they are 
given access to it. It is not really essential that grain 
shall be given to them at the same time, although in some 
instances it may hasten the fattening process. 

Usually no profit would result from carrying such 
ewes on into the winter and fattening them at that sea- 
son. The cost or value of the food would usually be more 
than the advance in the return that would accrue from 
the fattening process. Aged ewes, if fattened thus, should 
have the grain ground for them. Should the ewes be dis- 
carded for any other reason than that of advanced age, 
it may prove more profitable to carry them on into the 
winter before disposing of them. 

Attentions miscellaneous in character — Attention 
should be given to many details of management, all of 
which it would be impossible to enumerate. Prominent 
among these, however, are the following: (i) The ven- 
tilating of the sheds; (2) the bedding of the sheds and 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I45 

yards ; (3) special feeding for ewes whose teeth are fail- 
ing; (4) protection from cold storms spring and autumn; 
(5) tagging and trimming when necessary; (6) paring 
the feet; (7) dipping for ticks; (8) the shed space called 
for; and (9) the injury from close housing. 

The methods of providing ventilation are discussed 
later (see page 339). It is the necessity for ventilation 
that is now emphasized. When sheep are kept in open 
sheds, this danger will not exist. It occurs only in cold 
climates and where the doors are kept closed at night. 
When thus confined in a shed with a low loft, the air 
becomes very impure. They are forced more or less to 
breathe air that has been previously inhaled and that is 
strongly impregnated with ammonia from the droppings. 

The sheds and yards as well should have enough of 
bedding to keep them dry as far as this may be practi- 
cable. It may not be possible to keep the yards in such a 
condition during every day of the winter, but it is impera- 
tive that the sheds shall be kept thus. When the sheep 
are given straw as a part of the ration, the uneaten por- 
tion may be used as bedding, and enough may be obtained 
in some instances from this source. The aim should be 
to supply bedding in small quantities and frequently 
rather than in large quantities and seldom, as the bed is 
kept more fresh and free from odors when supplied by 
the first method. Damp beds are specially harmful to 
young lambs, and the same is true of beds that are foul. 
The proper bedding of the yards is not an easy proposi- 
tion where the rainfall is abundant in winter, because of 
the amount of the litter called for. Under such condi- 
tions the yards should be restricted to the smallest dimen- 
sions compatible with the needs of the flock. Land plas- 
ter, dry earth and even sifted coal ashes may be used with 
profit in dusting the manure occasionally. 

It may be desired in some instances to carry breed- 
ing ewes through the winter to furnish lambs after they 
have lost or partially lost their teeth. This may be a legit- 



146 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

imate desire when the owner of a small flock of pure 
breds is anxious to increase the number. It is important 
that such ewes be maintained in reasonably good condi- 
tion, or the lambs which they produce will not be prop- 
erly maintained. The aim should be to provide food for 
these easy of mastication, as, for instance, field roots 
pulped or sliced, or ensilage, finely chaffed fodders and 
ground grain. It is preferable to feed these mixed rather 
than separate. Valuable ewes may be thus maintained 
for even two winters after they would fail under ordinary 
conditions of feeding. 

While some storms are, of course, more or less hurt- 
ful to sheep at all seasons, they are specially harmful in 
the autumn and the spring, hence every reasonable effort 
should be made to protect them from such exposure. In 
summer the rain is warm, but in autumn and spring it 
sometimes falls with a temperature almost as cold as ice. 
Long-continued exposure to such storms may prove a 
source of great loss to the flock in the colds and inflam- 
mations that may result and in the debility that fre- 
quently follows. Exposure to snow in the absence of 
driving wind may not be very harmful to the sheep, 
though it is always injurious to young lambs, and long 
exposure to cold rains is sure death to the latter. 

The amount of tagging and trimming called for will 
vary much in flocks. Tagging is seldom necessary in 
winter in a flock that is healthy, but may become neces- 
sary in many instances when sheep are changed from dry 
food to that possessed of much succulence. The accumu- 
lation of filth around and under the tail head may be- 
come very offensive. Underneath maggots may be bred, 
which, unremoved, may soon make life burdensome to the 
sheep. Much wool may also be rendered valueless in 
this way. As soon as such indications appear, the clots 
=;hould be cut away with a sharp pair of shears, or if they 
have been allowed to harden with a sharp knife. Trim- 
ming the fleece is seldom necessary with grade flocks fur- 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I47 

ther than to cut away any torn or protruding locks of 
wool, but it may be of more or less benefit in enhancing 
the appearance of a flock of pure breds, and in the case 
of sheep that are to be shown it has come to be a neces- 
sity (see page 268). 

The trimming of the hoofs of ewes and other sheep 
calls for attention. The horn of the hoof may under some 
conditions grow out and become broken or split so as to 
cause lameness. In other instances the outer edge turns 
under the sole, enhancing the difficulty of walking. These 
injurious growths of hoof are most marked in soft soils, 
which do not wear the hoofs as do soils that are firm in 
texture. The remedy consists in paring off with a sharp 
knife all the portion of the bone that may have turned 
under the sole, and in clipping back the outer edges, and 
especially the toes when they grow out too far. 

Dipping for ticks once or twice a year is now recom- 
mended and practiced by nearly all flockmasters who take 
pride in the conditions of their flocks. It would seem 
easily possible to so eradicate ticks that further dipping 
would not be necessary, but in practice such attainment 
is seldom if ever reached. For the further discussion of 
this question (see Chapter XX). 

The too close crowding of breeding ewes should be 
avoided. They need more room than sheep that are being 
fattened or than shearlings that are retained for breeding 
uses. The space called for will, of course, vary with the 
size of the sheep. Fifteen to 20 square feet will be at 
least approximately suitable as shed room for ewes of the 
large breeds, as the Leicesters, Lincolns, Cotswolds and 
Oxford Downs, and 10 to 15 square feet for ewes of the 
smaller fine wool types, as the American Merinos. 

Too close housing of sheep in winter will soon bring 
disaster to any flock if long persisted in. This comes not 
only from inhaling the foul air, but from overheating, 
which frequently induces sweating in the sheep. When 
turned into the yards in such a condition, catarrhal 



148 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

troubles follow. The safe rule is to allow the ewes free 
access to the yards day and night, except when the 
weather is stormy. In cold climates such housing, given 
with the best intentions, has worked great harm to the 
flocks. But it is possible to winter ewes successfully by 
keeping them in reasonably warm and well-ventilated 
barns all the winter. 



CHAPTER VIII 
FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 

The subdivisions in the discussion of this subject are 
the following: (i) Food for rams from weaning until win- 
ter; (2) Food and care the first winter; (3) Stock rams in 
winter; (4) Food and care for sale rams in summer; (5) 
Food and care for stock rams in summer; (6) Food and 
management during the season of service ; (7) The dis- 
posal of rams ; and (8) Miscellaneous attentions called for. 

The care and management suitable for ram lambs to 
be used in breeding up to the weaning season is the same 
as for other lambs. It has been given in Chapter VI. 

When the lambs have been weaned, they should be 
culled, separating those possessed of sufficient promise 
from such as are inferior. The culling should include 
such as are ofif in markings, ungainly in form, deficient in 
fleece and lacking in size and robustness. 

It would be a great mistake to sell or to buy lambs 
for use in pure-bred flocks that lack the markings char- 
acteristic of the breed, or that are possessed of character- 
istics which do not properly belong to the same, how- 
soever excellent the animals may be in other respects. A 
bare head or leg in the Shropshire illustrates the former, 
and the presence of black wool in any part of the fleece 
the latter. But such rams, if strong and vigorous, may 
be superlatively useful in grade flocks, hence they should 
not be sacrificed where such a market exists for them. 

Lambs that are ungainly in form include such as are 
not possessed sufficiently of that blocky form that indi- 
cates vigor and good mutton-producing qualities. Such 
lambs may possess good size, but they are frequently 
found too long in limb and neck, too sharp in the spine, 
too much sunken in the crops and too narrow throughout. 

149 



150 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Such animals will not transmit the most desirable mutton 
form. Ram lambs of highest excellence for breeding, as 
also mature rams, should be compact, wide throughout, 
strong in the back, full in the breast, level in the crops, 
round in the ribs and heavy and shapely in the twist and 
masculine in the head. 

Deficiency in the fleece that should be possessed by 
rams kept for breeding may relate more or less to any of 
the requisites of a good fleece, or in extreme instances to 
several of them. The importance of correct wool char- 
acteristics increases with increase in the relative value of 
the kind of wool furnished and increase in the value that 
the wool bears to the mutton produced by the same ani- 
mal. Correct characteristics in the wool of the highest 
type of Merino is of more relative value than the same 
in a high type Southdown, but in no instance is it unim- 
portant where the breeding is pure. Nor would it be cor- 
rect to say that it is unimportant in the breeding of grades. 
Here also the importance of correct wool furnishings in 
the male increase in proportion to the relative value of the 
fleece sought. 

Lambs may be lacking in size but so possessed of other 
good qualities that there should be hesitancy about re- 
jecting them for service, especially when high-class mut- 
ton is sought. If the lambs are of good form and carry 
the furnishings that indicate robustness, they may be 
peculiarly valuable for the production of good mutton 
from grade ewes ; especially when the ewes are somewhat 
rough and lacking in quality will excellent results be 
obtained from such rams, as the lambs begotten by them 
will possess a combined compactness of form and refine- 
ment of limb that would not result from the use of larger 
sires though equally correct in form. In pure-bred flocks, 
however, there should be hesitancy about using sires in 
service that are under size, lest size in the average of the 
flock should be too much reduced. In no instance should 
such sires be used when lacking in robust vigor. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS I5I 

When the ram Iambs are graded, those drawn for sale 
to breeders of pure breds should be kept apart fro.n 
those to be sold to the breeders of grades, and also from 
the culls that are to go to the block. The chief argument 
for such isolation is found in the adverse influence which 
lambs of the second and third classes named would have 
on the sale of those of the first class, and likewise the 
adverse influence which those of the third class would 
have on the sale of those of the second class. It would 
aid in making sales of the small lambs sold for breeding 
if they could be separated from those that are larger but 
off in markings ; but in practice it is difificult to make so 
many divisions. If lambs of the first class are not all dis- 
posed of in the lamb form, it may be profitable to carry 
them over for sale as shearlings, but none of the other 
classes should be thus held over as a rule. They should 
all go to the block rather than be carried over, as the de- 
mand for them as shearlings would probably not be good. 

Food for rams from weaning until winter — From the 
time that the lambs are weaned until winter closes 
in, or until they are sold, no kind of pasture 
that can be furnished is superior to dwarf Essex rape, 
with access at the same time to an old grass pasture. In 
the absence of rape, second growth clover is good, or blue 
grass that is succulent and plentiful, or early sown win- 
ter rye, or indeed any kind of succulent food such as may 
be plentifully gathered amid the grain stubbles. Fall 
turnips amid these are specially helpful. Much caution 
should be used in grazing high-class lambs on the rape, 
lest there should be loss from bloating (see page 193). 

From the time of weaning until the lambs are housed 
for winter or sold, the necessity for concentrates and the 
quantity of the same to be fed will depend in a consider- 
able degree upon the pasture. When the supply of such 
grazing as well-grown rape, kohlrabi or fall turnips is 
plentiful, the necessity is not present for feeding large 
quantities of grain, because of the nutritious character of 



152 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

these pastures. In their absence it will probably prove 
advantageous to feed about i pound of grain daily per 
animal with oats as its base, the additions to the oats 
being preferably wheat bran or oilcake or both for the 
lambs to be used in feeding, and corn or barley for those 
to be sent to the block. \\' ith the former good growth is 
the prime consideration, but with the latter high condi- 
tion is the prime requisite. 

It will usually be time well spent to tag the lambs 
held for sale as breeders when necessary, and to trim 
them more or less — more in the case of the dark-faced 
breeds and less in that of the other breeds (see page 296). 

Food and care the first winter — The shelter called for 
to protect ram lambs the first winter will suffice if it gives 
them a dry bed and shields them from falling storms and 
drafts. For convenience in feeding and watering, they 
are frequently kept in one of the apartments of the sheep 
house, and when so kept it is less necessary to have them 
on the sunny side of the sheep house than in the case of 
breeding ewes. It is very necessary to furnish them with 
a yard or paddock in which to exercise. It will add to 
their sureness in begetting progeny if they can spend 
much of the time in the winter in the pastures, when the 
conditions will admit of this. In spring they may remain 
overnight in the pastures considerably earlier than would 
be safe in the case of the breeding ewes. For reasons that 
will be manifest, they should be kept entirely separate, 
from the ewes of the flock. 

As it is important that such lambs shall continue to 
make good growth the first winter, they must be fed 
accordingly. The aim should be to give them growth 
without excessive fatness. This will be realized only 
when they are given food essentially nitrogenous in char- 
acter and succulent. If liberally supplied with field roots, 
almost any kind of fodders will answer that are of fine 
growth and well cured. With three or four pounds of 
roots daily, and good leguminous hay. but little grain 



FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS I53 

will be needed. But if the lambs have been fed grain 
while on the autumn pasture, it will usually pay to give 
them some grain daily through the winter, but not usu- 
ally more than i pound per animal daily. The standard 
grain food for such animals is oats, or barley, wheat, 
bran, and a small proportion, say 5 per cent, of oilcake, 
added. When the rams are to be sold for range uses, 
pampering should be guarded against, or the rams will 
not have the desired vigor for roughing it on the range. 
Ranchmen should not invest in males without carefully 
investigating as to the way in which they have been fed 
and cared for. 

The number of the ram lambs that may be profitably 
kept in one flock will be influenced by the breed. It would 
probably be correct to say that of the fine wooled breeds 
as many as 100 animals may be kept in one flock, while 
a flock of medium or coarse wooled rams should not ex- 
ceed 50 animals. The roominess of the quarters and their 
suitability generally exercise a wide influence on the num- 
ber that may be kept in one flock. If any of the rams 
thus brought together, whether going into winter quar- 
ters or at other times, are strange to each other, fighting 
is sure to follow, and it may result fatally. This may 
be prevented by putting the animals thus brought to- 
gether in narrow quarters. For want of room they can- 
not harm each other seriously, and yet they are able to 
settle the question as to relative strength. This is also 
greatly important when valuable stock rams previously 
kept apart are brought together to pass the winter in the 
same quarters. 

Stock rams in winter — Stock rams — that is, rams used 
in service in the flock — should have an apartment for 
themselves, and when this keeps them quite away from 
close proximity to the ewes, it is just so much better 
suited to their needs, since in it they will be quiet and 
restful. In sheep sheds with an aisle running down 
through the center of the building, with pens or divisions 



154 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

on both sides of it, the breeding ewes are commonly kept 
on one side and the rams and sale sheep on the other side. 
The apartment in which those rams are kept in winter 
should open into a yard, and this into a paddock. No 
surer method could be taken of destroying the breeding 
powers in rams than to deny them exercise for periods 
at all prolonged. Usually the number of the rams thus 
kept together is limited. Because of this, it may be more 
convenient to keep the rams of different ages all in one 
pen. This is allowable when the food is moderate in 
character, but the aim should be to keep ram lambs sepa- 
rate from the older ewes, as they need a more forcing diet 
to give them completed growth. 

During the period of active service, the rams have 
probably been fed a liberal grain ration to sustain them 
at a time when the drain upon their system is severe. 
When the season for service is over, there should be a 
gradual reduction in the grain fed, and probably a mod- 
ification in the kinds fed. During the winter stock rams 
should be kept in a good condition of thrift without ex- 
cessive fatness. No kind of food will tend to keep them 
in this condition better than field roots, but in the case 
of rams mangels should not be fed, lest trouble should 
result from the lack of free urination. The same kinds of 
grain as were given as suitable for ram lambs (see page 
113) will also be found suitable for stock rams. The 
amount to feed should be regulated by the condition of 
the rams, and it should be kept as low as will be rea- 
sonably consistent on economical grounds and to avoid 
overtaxing the machinery of digestion in the rams. 

Should the stock rams be allowed to run with the 
breeding ewes in winter, they are less restful than when 
kept alone. The danger is present, at least to some ex- 
tent, that they may injure the pregnant ewes. Nor is 
the food that is suitable for the ewes always suitable for 
the stock rams. 

Sale rams in summer — As the rams held for sale as 



FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 1 55 

shearlings are of uncompleted growth, it is important 
that they shall be given good grazing until the season 
for selling arrives. This does not mean, of course, that 
the grazing shall be long, in the sense that good grazing 
is understood for cattle, but that the range on which they 
feed shall be sufficient to enable them to secure food 
enough to keep them growing continuously and to main- 
tain them in good flesh ; any kind of grazing that will do 
this will suffice. 

Whether supplementary grain food should be given 
will depend chiefly on the character of the grazing. Where 
that is sufficient to insure good growth and a fair condi- 
tion as to flesh, it would not be economical to add a grain 
supplement. When rape furnishes any considerable pro- 
portion of the pasture, the feeding of grain will not be 
necessary. But because of the value of such rams, it may 
be profitable to give them rape only as soiling food rather 
than as pasture. When thus fed, the feeding may be so 
controlled as to practically eliminate the danger of loss 
from bloating. While such rams should be in good con- 
dition of flesh, they should not be pampered. This is 
even more emphatically true of such rams as are to be 
sold for use on the ranges. 

Attention should be given to the tagging of sale rams 
whenever called for during the season preceding that of 
sale. Such attention should be given with great prompt- 
ness, otherwise the tagging may deform the symmetry of 
the fleece, which will injure the sale to the extent to which 
it may be present. A certain amount of trimming will 
aid in making sales, especially with the middle-wool 
breeds. It is also important that such rams shall be shorn 
as early as the weather conditions will admit of such 
shearing. Early shearing relieves them of the burden of 
that long fleece relatively which shearlings bear, and it 
gives them greater length of fleece at the time for selling 
than they would otherwise possess. 

Stock rams in summer — The pastures for stock rams 



156 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 



in summer will be ample when they sustain them in good 
flesh. In some instances it may not be necessary to keep 
them apart from the sale rams. However, they are not 
infrequently kept in paddocks, especially as the season 
for service approaches, for the reason chiefly that sup- 
plementary foods may be conveniently fed to them. 




FIG. 8— A NOTED PRIZE-V\ INNINt, YEARLING SHROPSHIRE RAM 

The property of Geo. McKerrow & Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin 

(Courtesy of owners) 



Where the pastures will maintain sufficient flesh 
without grain, it is better not to feed it to them at that 
season, as the comparative rest to the digestive powers 
which succulent and nutritious grazing brings with it is 
beneficial. The change thus efifected will make grain 
feeding the more effective when it is resumed again, pre- 
paring the rams for service. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS I57 

As the season for service approaches, the rams 
should be given supplementary food. Such feeding 
should increase gradually from the time when it is be- 
gun until maximum amounts are fed. The feeding of 
supplementary food should begin not less than two to 
three weeks before service begins. The grain fed should 
be nitrogenous, and it should not be fed to the extent of 
producing undue fatness in the rams with the accom- 
panying sluggishness that would result from such a con- 
dition. Care must also be taken to feed a due propor- 
tion of succulent food along with the grain. Such food is 
peculiarly helpful in sustaining in proper condition the 
organs concerned in generation. 

Rams during the season of service — The food and 
management generally suitable for rams during the sea- 
son of service will be much influenced by the relative size 
and value of the flock with which they are to be mated. 
When the flock is small, say not more than a score, there 
may be instances in which it would be proper even to 
allow valuable rams to remain in the pastures with the 
flock and without extra food and care. In the case of 
grade flocks it may be admissible to allow them to run 
with a flock considerably larger. But when a ram is to 
serve 50 valuable ewes, or even a larger number, he 
should be kept in a shed with yard or paddock attached 
and fed food that will aid in sustaining in vigorous action 
the organs concerned in generation. In this way also 
the ram may be prevented from wasting his energies 
through an excess of service given to each ewe. In some 
instances rams of the Merino type are shorn before the 
season of service, to relieve them of the oppressive load 
of wool which they carry. 

The food given to the rams that are in service should 
be of high quality. Valuable rams in service are com- 
monly kept in a comfortable apartment of a shed during 
the day, and are allowed the liberty of a small paddock 
or pasture at night. 



158 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Where the pasture is restricted, as it frequently is, 
green food is fed as soiling food. For such a use nothing 
is more suitable than well-grown rape or alfalfa, cut not 
later than the stage of early bloom. Many other kinds 
of green food will answer, as corn of tender growth, peas 
and oats or vetches and oats grown together, field roots 
with the tops, cabbage and also pumpkins. Such food 
may be given, up to the limit of consumption, providing 
the digestion remains undisturbed. Rape and alfalfa, if 
fed somewhat wilted, will not produce bloat, which may 
happen if the rams were to graze on these, or even on 
clover. No grain food is more suitable for such rams than 
oats if only one kind of grain is fed, but an addition of a 
small amount of Canada peas, wheat or barley, may im- 
prove the ration. In the absence of green food, wheat 
bran and oil cake, especially the former, may be added 
with profit to the grain. The amount of grain fed may 
exceed two pounds daily in some instances. In any event 
the amount should be liberal. Such rams will also turn 
to good account some hay, especially when leguminous 
in character. 

When the rams run with small flocks of ewes in the 
fields, no especial attention for the ram may be necessary 
further than to rub some kind of coloring matter over 
his breast and brisket to indicate which ewes have been 
served (see page 162). In some instances rams are fed 
grain while running with the flock. This, however, in- 
volves the necessity of a daily visit by the shepherd, and 
a further draft on his time while the ram is consuming the 
grain. When they are kept up, the ewes are usually 
driven to the yard morning or evening. The ram soon 
singles out any in heat and these should be at once re- 
moved. When all have been served, the ram is at once 
removed and the ewes are kept away from the flock for 
several hours. In other instances what is known as a 
"teaser" is used to indicate which ewes are in heat. A 
teaser is simply a ram carrying what may be termed a 



FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 



159 



cloth apron, which makes it impossible for him to serve 
ewes. Of course, valuable rams are not devoted to such 
a use. 

The amount of service which rams may profitably 
render is influenced by such conditions as age, natural 
vigor, breed and management during the season of service. 
It is not enough that rams shall be capable of begetting 




FIG. 9— A NOTED PRIZE-WINNING YEARLING OXFORD DOWN RAM 
The property of Geo. McKerrow & Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin 
(Courtesy of owners) 

progeny. It is all important that they beget a numerous 
and vigorous progeny, which they will not do if overtaxed 
by excessive service. Instances are on record in which rams 
have served without any marked reduction in condition 
in a single season 200 ewes. These were Merino rams 
and the service required extended over a considerable 
period. Usually from one-fourth to one-third of that 



l6o MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

number is all that a well-grown ram should be allowed 
to serve in a single season, and when the ram is with the 
flock it should not comprise so large a number of ewes. 
A ram lamb should not usually be allowed to serve more 
than 20 ewes. One ram, though mature, should not be 
allowed to serve more than say three ewes in a day and 
at intervals of not less than three to four hours. 

The disposal of rams — The breeders of stock rams 
usually aim at the disposal of a large percentage of the 
product for the season in the autumn of the year that 
produced them. When sold as lambs, the prices obtained 
are usually as good, and in some instances better, rela- 
tively, than when they are sold as shearlings ; and when 
thus sold the risk of loss is shifted to the purchaser, and 
larger room is left for those unsold. But sales cannot 
usually be made unless they are well developed. Pur- 
chasers are but little inclined to buy small ram lambs to 
be used as sires, and it is fortunate that they are. Some 
breeders object to the use of lambs as sires on the ground 
that older sires possessed of more maturity will transmit 
more of vigor to the progeny. The laws of breeding give 
considerable support to the view, but the idea must not 
be pressed too far, as in small flocks, reasonably good 
results have followed the use of the ram lambs as sires. 

All things taken into account, the purchase of shear- 
ling rams is to be preferred to that of ram lamljs to be 
used in service, but it is more difficult to secure shearlings 
possessed of all-round high quality than to secure lambs 
possessed of the same, as the best of the lambs are very 
frequently sold as lambs, leaving only those that have 
been thus passed by to be sold as shearlings. But the in- 
dividuality of the animal may more certainly be known 
as a shearling, as growth is then more nearly completed. 
Ranchmen prefer shearling rams to lambs, for reasons that 
will be apparent. Should any of the shearlings remain un- 
sold, the wisdom of carrying them over another year to sell 
as breeders is questionable. The fact that they have re- 



FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS l6l 

mained on hand for so long a period raises a suspicion 
in the minds of those who are seeking rams that they 
were not disposed of because of inferiority in their fur- 
nishings. 

When good stock rams have been used for say two 
years, it may be necessary to dispose of them to avoid in- 
breeding. When they have shown peculiar excellence in 
the line of prepotency, it would be unfortunate to have 
such rams sent to the block. Those seeking rams to head 
their flocks of that particular breed, should give the pref- 
erence to these when they can obtain them. Their pre- 
potency has been proved, which, of course, cannot be said 
of young rams. If, however, such rams should be pur- 
chased by those not instructed in the care of such rams, 
disaster may follow. It will usually be found advisable 
to care .for them on lines similar to those to which they 
have become accustomed. Violence in care and food 
given to such rams will usually result in great injury to 
them. 

The age to which rams may be kept in service with 
profit and advantage cannot be stated, except in the most 
general way, for reasons that will be apparent. It would 
be correct to say that usually the period of most active 
service for rams is when they are shearlings, two years 
old, three years old and four years old. In other words, 
they are in service four seasons. Instances are on record 
in which Merino rams have been in service for more than 
a dozen years. But there may be instances in which the 
period covered will be twice as long. And there may be 
other instances when the period of service should be 
closed sooner. It is greatly important to use rams only 
that are possessed of much vigor, whatsoever the age 
may be. 

Miscellaneous attentions called for — Certain atten- 
tions are called for in the management of rams that may 
not seem greatly important, and yet when given they 
add to the profit from keeping them. These include (i) 



l62 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

trimming the wool on sale rams; (2) trimming the feet 
when necessary; (3) "ruddling" the rams when they run 
with the ewes at the time of service; and (4) isolating 
rams brought in from distant flocks. 

The degree of the trimming called for is less than 
that given to show rams, but a certain amount of it will 
in a majority of instances add to the attractive appear- 
ance of the rams. The long wooled breeds may not be im- 
proved much by it, nor is it given to the Merino types. 
But the middle wooled breeds will be much improved by 
trimming (see page 268). The fleece should also be care- 
fully guarded against the seeds of plants that adhere to 
the wool, such as burs. A few plants growing in by- 
places unnoticed will deform the fleece of many rams that 
may have grazed near them. 

The feet of all rams may need trimming, but the need 
will be greatest with rams in service. For the method of 
trimming (see page 282). It is greatly important that 
stock rams shall be kept active on their feet, for reasons 
that will be apparent. 

By ruddling is meant applying some coloring sub- 
stance to the breast and brisket of the ram that will leave 
its imprint on the ewe that has been served. The benefits 
resulting are the evidence of service and the possibility 
of knowing the date of the same. Lampblack and oil 
are the materials used in some instances, and powdered 
red chalk and linseed oil in others. Various paint mix- 
tures, however, may be used. Those that dry least 
quickly will best serve the purpose. The frequency with 
which the application is renewed will vary with the dry- 
ing properties of the coloring matter used. 

The isolating or quarantining of a ram brought into 
the flock is a wise precaution, unless it is absolutely cer- 
tain that in all respects he is healthy. The introduction 
of sheep scab and ticks may in this way be ascertained, if 
present, within a few weeks, and in this way may be pre- 
vented from reaching the flock. Two careful dippings 



FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 163 

given within, say, 10 days of each other will render fur- 
ther quarantining unnecessary. Such dipping is greatly 
important when rams are taken into flocks on the ranges, 
and when done at the farm or ranch all danger of infec- 
tion on the way is thus avoided. 



CHAPTER IX 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 

In Chapter IX the following phases of this question 
are discussed: (i) The best natural grazing lands for 
sheep; (2) Grass pastures permanent in character; (3) 
Grass pastures temporary in character; (4) Pastures sup- 
plementary in character; (5) Pastures for winter grazing; 
(6) Grazing sheep on grass pastures ; (7) Grazing sheep 
on supplementary pastures ; and (8) The benefits from 
supplementary grazing. In sheep husbandry the ques- 
tion of grazing and the methods of conducting the graz- 
ing are relatively of much importance, because of the 
large portion of the year during which the sheep have 
access to the pastures. 

The best natural grazing lands — The best natural 
grazing lands for sheep are: (i) Those that have good 
natural or artificial drainage ; (2) that produce herbage 
in variety, fine, palatable and nutritious ; and (3) that 
have ample shade and living water. With these requi- 
sites the value of the pastures will be proportionately ad- 
vanced by their increasing productiveness. 

If sheep are to thrive continually, it is absolutely 
necessary that the pastures on which they thrive shall 
possess good natural or artificial drainage. This does not 
mean that they must be rolling or even undulating in 
character, but that they must be free from stagnant water. 
The greater suitability of undulating and rolling lands 
for providing such grazing arises from the fact, first, that 
they usually do possess good natural drainage ; second, 
that the surface of the soil is usually reasonably dry at all 
seasons ; and, third, that the herbage growing on them 
is usually such as is relished by sheep. But this does not 
mean that sheep mav not be grown successfully on pas- 

164 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 



165 



turei that are level and even low, providing they are 
properly drained, as has been shown in the great success 
that has attended the growing of sheep on the reclaimed 
fens of Lincolnshire and the reclaimed marshes of Kent 
in England. 

That sheep delight in variety in the pastures is abun- 
dantly shown in the great variety of weeds even that they 







*"■**■ '^t^jjB 




FIG. 10— SHROPSHIRES ON SUMMER GRAZING 
The property of Renk Bros., Wisconsin 



l66 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

will consume (see page 13). Pastures composed of 
mixed grasses should, therefore, prove very suitable for 
sheep. But this does not mean that they cannot be 
maintained in good form on pasture w^ith but one or two 
grasses, as shown in the thrift that usually comes to sheep 
maintained on blue grass only or on bufifalo grass. Fine 
grasses are much preferred to those that are coarse, hence 
one reason of the greater fondness of sheep for blue grass 
{Poa pratensis) and buffalo grass {Buchloe dactyloidcs) 
than for orchard grass {Dactylus glomcrata) or tall oat 
grass {Arrhenatherum avenaceiim). Palatability is, of 
course, a prime essential in pastures. Usually succulence 
and palatability are closely associated, and succulence is 
greatest in pastures in the early stages of growth. Those 
grasses, therefore, which continue to grow during much of 
the season are preferable to those that grow quickly to 
maturity and then practically cease to grow for the sea- 
son. This explains why sheep will eat blue grass with a 
relish all the season, though they will consume weeds 
only when they are in the succulent stage. The nutri- 
tion in grasses is, of course, greatly important, and it is 
greater in seasons relatively dry than in those that are 
moist. 

The necessity for shade increases with increase in 
the summer heat. It is usually best provided by trees, 
but in their absence may be furnished by sheds made of 
a roof consisting of poles and covered with straw or other 
material. In permanent pastures a grove could usually 
be grown in a few years, when properly protected. On 
farms located on the prairie the grass around the out- 
buildings may furnish the necessary shade, but shade in 
the pastures is preferable, if for no other reason than con- 
tiguity to the grazing. On the dry ranges of the west 
sheep not provided with shade sufifer considerably from 
exposure to the summer heat. 

The advantage of living water in pastures for sheep 
cannot easily be overestimated. They should not be al- 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 1 67 

lowed to drink from stagnant pools in the summer sea- 
son, nor should they be allowed to feed upon the rank, 
coarse herbage that is frequently found growing around 
the borders of these, and also on land that during por- 
tions of the year is saturated with water. Sheep thus 
grazed are much liable to be preyed upon by parasites 
which frequently abound where such conditions exist, and 
yet in northern areas there are basins and small lakes 
which do not incur such hazard ; as, for instance, many 
of those found in the park area of Minnesota. But in 
these the waters, for various reasons, remain clear, and 
they do not grow sedge, aquatic plants or coarse grasses 
around their borders. 

Extensive pastures are better adapted relatively for 
being grazed by sheep than by cattle, as they usually 
furnish a greater variety of herbage gratifying to sheep 
than pastures not extensive, and they give more oppor- 
tunity for indulgence in the roaming habit while being 
grazed. Sheep will also thrive better relatively on rugged 
and sparse pastures than cattle, as, because of their 
greater lightness of body, they gather their food with less 
effort. An occasional change of pastures is also, as a 
rule, helpful to sheep. 

Grass pastures permanent in character — Grass pas- 
tures for sheep permanent in character are composed, 
first, of grasses that are indigenous to the locality, or, if 
introduced, highly adapted to the conditions ; and, second, 
grasses composed of mixtures which are sown to pro- 
duce grazing for long periods. 

Prominent among the former are grasses that grow on 
unbroken areas without being sown by man after the 
forest has been cut away on the unbroken prairie and on 
the western ranges. Kentucky blue grass is by far the 
most prominent and valuable of the grasses that grow 
thus in forest areas, and it promises to cover the larger 
portion of the cultivated area of the prairie in the future 
not distant. It has the unique quality of being able to 



l68 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

retain its hold upon the land when it has once been in- 
troduced without hindering in any way the processes of 
cultivation. Moreover, it forms a thick sod which is fav- 
orable to dry and clear grazing, and it furnishes grazing 
fine in character and that is much relished. It is, in a 
sense, the cosmopolitan grass of the continent, but it is 
not well adapted to the dry ranges of the west, nor to the 
hot summers of the far south. Grasses of the grama 
family must continue in great measure to furnish the 
permanent pastures of the ranges. White clover sown 
on blue grass pastures usually thenceforth becomes its 
abiding partner and adds considerably to the value of the 
grazing. Red top has a prominent place among those 
that provide such grazing in northerly areas of the 
southern states, and Bermuda grass still further south. 

The permanent pastures composed of mixtures may 
usually include several of the more prominent grasses 
and clovers. It would be correct to say that no valuable 
grass not possessed of weedlike properties, as quack- 
grass (Agropyrum repens), for instance, is debarred from 
being used to provide permanent pastures in some part 
of the United States or Canada. The same is true of 
clovers. The mixtures that may be used to form perma- 
nent pasture in the various areas of the United States and 
Canada are discussed in Chapter XVI of the book. 
"Grasses and How to Grow Them," by the author. The 
methods of establishing the pastures are also discussed 
in the same. 

Permanent pastures sown to provide grazing for 
sheep are not much in evidence on this continent. The 
need for them has not been much felt, owing to the abun- 
dance of other grazing in proportion to the numbers of 
the sheep kept. Doubtless their day is coming, as where 
sheep are numerously kept some form of permanent pas- 
ture is necessary, and under most conditions that com- 
posed of a number of grasses is more suitable and more 
productive than a pasture composed chiefly of Init one 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 169 

variety. Alfalfa has been recommended as a permanent 
pasture plant for sheep, but its value for such a use unless 
mixed with other grasses is problematical, because of the 
harm through bloating which the alfalfa may give rise 
to in sheep and the harm through close grazing which the 
sheep may do to the alfalfa. 

Grass pastures temporary in character — The com- 
position of grass pastures temporary in character must, 
of course, be much influenced by the adaptation in the 
grass and clovers in each locality. Such plants only can 
be used as are able quickly to establish themselves in the 
soil. If they can establish themselves in a single season, 
their adaptation is, of course, higher than if a longer 
time is required. Timothy occupies a foremost place 
among the grasses that establish themselves quickly. 
Orchard grass, tall oat grass and some of the rye grasses 
are akin to it in this respect, but the limitations to their 
adaptation tend much to circumscribe the area of their 
growth. Russian brome occupies an intermediate place 
and meadow fescue and Kentucky blue grass are so slow 
in becoming established as to render it unwise to sow 
them for such grazing. All the clovers establish them- 
selves quickly and are therefore suitable for such pastures. 
No other mixture of grasses has become so gen- 
erally popular in providing temporary pastures as timo- 
thy and medium red clover, as, sown in the spring along 
with a nurse crop, they usually cover the ground by the 
advent of winter. But several varieties of clover will 
serve the purpose better than one variety, since they 
provide food at different times as growth progresses. 
Sainfoin, but little grown as yet in America, will doubt- 
less have a place in some of the states in providing pas- 
ture for sheep. It will grow in soils rather dry and poor. 
It is fine of stem and leaf, and sheep are very fond of it. 

The duration of such pasture must be determined 
by such conditions as the extent to which the pasture is 
wanted and the nature of the rotation. Usually such 



170 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

pastures are of short duration. In some instances they 
are grazed but one year ; in others for two and even for 
three and four seasons. The grazing of these may, of 
course, alternate with the production of hay. 

More commonly the best arrangement of grass pas- 
tures for sheep is that which provides both temporary and 
permanent grazing. Permanent pasture in some form is 
usually a great convenience when grazing sheep, as it 
may be relied upon to furnish grazing at any season of 
the year when the ground is bare ; whereas other pastures 
might not prove so suitable in periods of prolonged rain- 
fall, as they are not covered with so firm a turf. 

Pastures supplementary in character — The plan of 
supplementing the grass pastures with grazing furnished 
by other plants is growing in favor wherever sheep are 
kept primarily for mutton. Of course, such pastures can- 
not be grown on the open ranges, but the sheep may be 
taken from the ranges to the grazing thus provided under 
arable farm conditions, and this method of grazing and 
even of finishing range sheep is growing in favor. 

The following are prominent among the plants that 
are or may be grown to provide such grazing for sheep 
in the United States and Canada. Among the small 
cereals are rye, wheat, oats, barley and speltz. Among 
the leguminous cereals are the Canada pea. the cowpea. 
the common vetch and the sand vetch. Among those of 
the maize and sorghum habit of growth are corn, sweet 
sorghum and some of the non-saccharine sorghums. 
Among plants of the Brassica family are rape, kale, kohl- 
rabi, cabbage and white mustard. Among the tubers are 
peanuts and sweet potatoes, and among field roots are 
turnips and rutabagas. It is not the purpose to dwell 
here on the methods of growing these. They have been 
discussed at some length in other works from the author's 
pen. more especially "Forage Crops Other than Grasses" 
and "Cultivated Crops." The object sought is to show 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP I7I 

when and where these crops may be used to supplement 
the grass pastures. 

Winter rye, much the best of the small cereals to fur- 
nish grazing for sheep, is most useful in furnishing graz- 
ing to breeding ewes and their lambs in the quite early 
spring, even in advance of succulent grazing furnished by 
the grass pastures. Cropping it closely should prevent 
all danger from ergot, which in some areas has been 
known to produce abortion on rich soils. But it is some- 
times growm also to furnish grazing in the autumn. Win- 
ter wheat in certain areas, as Kansas, is sometimes grazed 
by sheep in winter. Spring rye and all the other small 
cereals named may be grown if necessary to provide suc- 
culent grazing in the early summer, but for such a use 
they are not extensively grown. 

The Canada pea is seldom grown by itself to provide 
grazing for sheep, but it is in combinations, to some ex- 
tent, as is shown below. The common vetch is consid- 
erably grown to provide grazing for sheep in proximity 
to the Pacific, and in the vicinity of the Great Lakes and 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence it may come to be freely grown 
for such a use. Southward from where highest adapta- 
tion is found for the common vetch, the sand or hairy 
vetch grows at its best, even as far south as the Gulf of 
Mexico, when sown at the proper season. All these are 
sown to provide succulent grazing in the spring and early 
summer, and the Canada pea and summer vetch are also 
sometimes sown to provide food for fattening. .The cow- 
pea also furnishes good supplemental grazing. 

Indian corn may under certain conditions be sown to 
provide summer grazing for sheep, but it is better suited 
to furnish food on which sheep may be fattened while 
they are harvesting the corn. Sweet sorghum, and also 
the non-saccharine sorghums, may be sown to provide 
midsummer grazing, and thus help out the pastures, espe- 
cially in dry areas and in dry seasons. Sheep are not so 
fond of such grazing, however, as of that furnished by 



1/2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

many other plants. But the habit of growth in these 
sorghums furnishes a large amount of grazing, as they 
sprout up again when eaten down. 

Among plants of the brassica family, rape is by far 
the most extensively grown because of its wide distribu- 
tion and high excellence in providing grazing that is 
highly palatable and abundantly nutritious. Kale in cer- 
tain mild areas where it comes safely through the winter 
has been found most excellent in providing succulent 
food in the spring. Kohlrabi should be more grown for 
autumn grazing than it has been heretofore. It will grow 
under conditions more dry than those suitable for the 
other plants of this family, and, as with rape, the entire 
food portion is grown above ground. Cabbage has special 
adaptation to furnishing late grazing, even later than that 
furnished by rape, owing to the power which the heads 
have to resist the influence of frost. White mustard has 
been but little grown in this country to provide pasture 
for sheep, though frequently grown in Britain for such 
a use. It is valued because of its rapid growth, as 
in a rape field it tends to prevent bloat in the sheep, be- 
cause it stimulates the early mating of ewes grazed on 
it, and because it has been noticed that sheep grazed on 
it usually do well when put upon other good grazing. 

Peanuts and sweet potatoes are not sown primarily 
to provide grazing for sheep, but when these are grown 
it is claimed that grazing off the tops is a cheap way of 
removing them. Sheep are fond of them and they are 
nutritious. 

Turnips are more grown to provide grazing on the 
field than rutabagas. For such a use the seed is fre- 
quently sown, as rape is sometimes sown, along with that 
of small grain, using from one to two pounds of seed per 
acre. But in mild winter latitudes, as in certain of the 
mountain states southward, also westward along the 
Pacific, there would seem to be no good reasons why tur- 



PASTURES AND GKAZING THEM BY SHEEP 1 73 

nips and rutabagas may not be grown and grazed off 
by sheep as they are in Britain. 

Some of these plants may be profitably grown in cer- 
tain combinations. Those which may be thus grown 
include the small cereals, non-leguminous, and those also 
that are leguminous, and white mustard. Corn and the 
sorghums are not much suitable for such combinations, 
owing to the shade which they produce in their growth, 
but they may be grown in certain mixtures with some 
degree of profit. Rape is frequently grown in various 
mixtures, but the benefit from it thus grown, except in a 
limited number of instances, is still problematical. Good 
results frequently follow from growing it in corn fields 
at the time of the last cultivation given to the corn. 

The small cereals may be grown in any kind of a 
combination that may be desired, bearing in mind that 
only spring varieties may be sown together in the one 
case and winter varieties in the other. Relative cheap- 
ness of seed should go far to determine the varieties that 
shall be sown. Oats is a favorite grain to sow along 
with the Canada field pea and the common vetch. The 
sand vetch fits in well with the winter rye, and in some 
localities crimson clover added is a further improvement. 
White mustard fits in nicely with rape, since it grows 
more quickly than rape, and because of its prominence in 
advanced growth and possibly for other reasons will be 
much consumed by the sheep when they begin to graze, 
and it is believed that the consumption of the mustard 
tends to lessen the liability in the rape to produce bloat. 
Rape and fall turnips blend nicely when sown along with 
grain and furnish a very suitable variety in the grazing. 

The succession in such grazing in the northern states 
and Canada is much the same. It begins with winter rye. 
Then follow the spring cereals, and in close succession on 
these dwarf Essex rape, which by variation in the times 
of sowing may be made to provide grazing on until the 
advent of winter. Corn and the sorghums furnish sue- 



T74 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

culent grazing only through the warm months of sum- 
mer. The grazing of this character for autumn fatten- 
ing consists mainly of dwarf Essex rape and mature corn. 
The succession in the central states is not far different, 
but cowpeas and the sand vetch are more used in these. 
The succession in the southern states begins with such 
winter grains as rye and the sand vetch. Then follow 
such crops as corn and the sorghums and cowpeas ; also 
in some parts the velvet bean, not heretofore mentioned. 
The cowpea may be made to cover much of the entire 
summer and autumn. The autumn fattening foods will 
be corn, mature, and possibly soy beans, mature, which 
have not been previously mentioned. The extent to 
which winter grazing on rape, kale and crimson clover 
may be conducted has not yet been fully determined in 
the South. There would seem to be no good reasons, 
however, why these crops could not be made to furnish 
excellent winter and early spring grazing for sheep and 
early lambs in all parts of the South where winter cab- 
bages can be grown for the northern market. The Canada 
field peas, and also the common vetch sown with enough 
oats to sustain them, furnish fattening food for grazing 
in certain areas of the mountain states. Field roots, of 
course, may not be grazed in the fields in winter where 
they remain frozen for any length of time. 

Grass pastures for winter grazing — In the northern 
states no grass or clover will compare with blue grass. 
Of course, this question is not of much practical impor- 
tance when the snowfall is such that the ground is sel- 
dom bare in the winter. In other areas it is seldom cov- 
ered much of the winter, and in these the character of the 
grazing is a matter of much importance. When such 
grazing is considerable in supply it may furnish a large 
proportion of the food, and what is almost equally im- 
portant, the exercise thus given to the breeding ewes is 
greatly helpful to them and to their progeny. Some other 
grasses are good, but not so good as blue grass, since they 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP T 75 

are more injured with the frost. Among these are orchard 
grass and Russian brome. 

In some areas the pasturing of meadows, especially 
those newly sown with clover, is allowable, as in some 
parts of Illinois and Iowa. In other areas, and these are 
greatly in the majority, such grazing would be most de- 
structive to the meadows. 

On the western ranges the native grasses, especially 
those of the Bufifalo species, have very high adaptation 
for winter grazing. Where sheep can find enough of these 
they will come through the winter in good form. The 
damage from such grazing lies in the sudden storms that 
arise in winter in much of the range country, which makes 
it unsafe to allow the sheep to graze far away from the 
winter quarters. This danger can be partially met by 
fencing in pastures not distant from the sheds and saving 
them specially for such grazing. But with very large 
flocks this is not entirely practicable, owing to the very 
large amount of the grazing that would be required. 
These grasses cure admirably on the ground, as the cur- 
ing is brought about by lack of moisture in the absence 
of frost. In some of the western mountain valleys, also, 
good winter grazing may be furnished by growing alfalfa, 
alsike and other clover, and some of the cultivated grasses, 
in admixture. The alfalfa is so lacking in succulence 
then that the danger from bloat is practically eliminated. 

In the southern states the list of grasses suitable for 
winter grazing is not so large as in the North. Bermuda, 
the standard grass of the far South, does not furnish graz- 
ing in winter, as it is so easily killed by frost. Bur clover 
may be made to serve a good purpose and each locality 
has some native grasses adapted to its needs, that so far 
may furnish grazing. But the South has highest adapta- 
tion for furnishing supplementary winter grazing from 
grain of various kinds and plants of the Brassica family. 
These include winter rye, winter oats, vetches and rape. 



.176 MANAGEMENT AND EEEDING OF SHEEP 

Grazing sheep on grass pastures — One of the most 
important things about grazing sheep on grass pastures 
is to adapt the breed or grade to the character of the pas- 
tures. It would seem correct to say : (1) That the weight 
of the sheep grazed on pastures may be decreased with in- 
crease in the range and decrease in the abundance of its 
production. (2) That sheep not too short in limb and 
too compact in form can graze more easily on rugged and 
sparse pastures than sheep of the opposite type. (3J 
That light and small breeds grazed for successive 
generations on abundant pastures will increase in size, 
but heavy breeds grazed on sparse pastures will soon 
become a wreck. The reasons for the above will be obvi- 
ous. A light breed will readily gather food on sparse 
pastures. This a heavy breed cannot do, because of its 
heaviness. Nature has taught this lesson plainly in the 
great difference in the size of the mountain breeds and 
the heavy breeds grown on seaside marsh lands. 

The grazing of sheep on the arable farms cannot be 
successfully conducted withcut fencing. The absence of 
fences on so many of the grain farms of the west and the 
cost of constructing these is a great hindrance to the 
more general introduction of sheep onto those farms. 
Suitable fencing for sheep when made of wire is a little 
more costly than will suffice for cattle, and the material 
more commonly used in future for such fencing will be 
woven wire. When barbed wire fences are made for cat- 
tle, posts set two rods distant, and three wires, will make 
a fence sufficient to confine cattle not materially unruly. 
A fence of the same material to confine sheep would an- 
swer the purpose better when the posts are set more fre- 
quently, and it would call for not less than five barb 
wires. 

One of the best forms of fencing for sheep is made of 
some kind of woven wire with one or more strands of 
barb wire strung on the posts above the woven wire. 
Such a fence should usually be erected on an elevation 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP I'J'J 

or ridge made by turning two, four or six furrows toward 
a center, the number of the furrows being dependent to 
some extent on the kind of plow used. These furrows 
should be smoothed nicely so as to make a fence bottom 
without cavities in it. The posts should be set at one 
rod distant, or if set at two rods, a stake should be driven 
down firmly equidistant between the posts and coming up 
as high as the top of the woven wire, which when 
stretched should be stapled to it. It should be unneces- 
sary to add that these stakes should be made of some 
kind of wood that lasts well. The woven wire, of which 
there are many kinds on the market, several of which are 
good, should not be less than 30 inches. It should be 
stretched along the posts near the ground. Above the 
woven wire should be at least one barbed wire, approx- 
imately 8 or 9 inches above the woven wire. Such a fence 
will ordinarily restrain sheep, but it may not be wise to 
have it thus low if horses graze on the other side, and if 
dogs or wolves are to be kept out it must be higher. It 
would seem safe to say, however, that a dog or a wolf 
will seldom try to clear a barb wire fence higher than say 
4 or 5 feet. To fence securely against dogs and wolves 
see page 372. 

Fencing in sheep by means of hedges may still be 
regarded in the experimental stage. In the northern 
states no hedge plant has been found hitherto that is in 
all respects completely satisfactory. That which has 
proved most satisfactory is the osage orange. Possibly 
when our busy American farmers can find more time to 
properly care for osage orange hedges, they will prove 
more satisfactory. The southern states have a promising 
hedge plant for southern latitudes in the Citrus trifoliata, 
but it does not seem to have been much used for that pur- 
pose, owing probably to the comparative cheapness of 
wood in furnishing fencing material. 

The closeness of the grazing by sheep that should 
be sought or avoided is influenced by the kind of grazing. 



iy8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

the season of the grazing, the character of the weather 
and the desire to furnish winter grazing from grass pas- 
tures. It must be conceded that sheep are fondest of 
short and tender grazing and that such grazing is good 
for them. The fact must also be recognized that when 
grass is eaten very short, it is usually less able to produce 
so abundantly as when it has more leaf growth. Between 
these two conflicting facts the flockmaster has to de- 
termine the course that he must aim to pursue. 

Coarse grazing should, as a rule, be closely grazed 
for the reason, first, that sheep will not eat it at an ad- 
vanced stage of growth, and second, that it has greater 
power to grow when in season than the small and fine 
grasses. As a rule grazing close in the spring is more 
allowable than the same in the autumn, as in the spring 
the season of growth is nearly all yet ahead, whereas in 
the autumn close grazing leaves the fields so bare that the 
grasses in the same start but slowly in the spring. Dur- 
ing seasons that are moist growth is much more vigor- 
ous than in dry seasons ; hence close grazing is so far 
more allowable. When winter grazing is to be furnished 
in abundant quantity, the sheep grazed on the pastures 
may eat them down in the spring, but they should then 
be removed during the remainder of the season. Whether 
sheep and other stock should be grazed together under 
ordinary conditions of grazing is a question that has given 
rise to some controversy. The argument may be stated 
thus: The chief of the reasons against grazing sheep 
with other stock are: (i) That sheep by their continued 
movement over the pasture soil it more or less, which so 
far detracts from the relish which cattle have for it. (2) 
That when the pasture is closely stocked, the sheep are 
able to get the lion's share of the grazing, because of the 
close habit of grazing that characterizes them. The cat- 
tle grazing with them suffer accordingly. (3) When 
sheep graze with swine, the latter, when the grazing is at 
all close, soil much of it, so that it becomes offensive to 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 1 79 

sheep, and in rare instances brood sows in heat may hurt 
the lambs. (4) When sheep graze with colts, the latter 
are much prone, through mere play, to chase the former, 
to their injury. The chief of the reasons in favor of such 
grazing are: (i) The grazing that follows is more com- 
plete, since one class of the stock eats more or less what 
another class rejects. (2) Sheep grazing in a pasture 
are a great aid in preventing increase in weeds in the 
same. (3) It is frequently much more convenient to graze 
stock together than separate. The following deductions 
from the above would seem legitimate: (i) Such grazing 
is admissible and may be commendable when the range 
is large and the food is plentiful ; but (2) it should not be 
much practiced when the range is small, and not to any 
extent when the supplies of the food are short. 

Protecting sheep from substances that adhere to the 
wool is a matter of much importance. While these sub- 
stances, usually designated burs, are of various kinds, as 
burdocks, cockleburs and sandburs, burdocks are most 
frequently in evidence. They entrench themselves in by- 
places in the pastures, and unless combated by man will 
continue to produce fresh plants from year to year. This 
cosmopolitan weed apparently grows in all parts of the 
United States and Canada, and yet its complete eradica- 
tion in a pasture or elsewhere is very simple. Cutting a 
plant below the crown at any time after it has begun to 
grow and by any kind of an implement will cause its 
death. Mowing above ground, even after the seedheads 
have begun to form, will not stay reproduction, as im- 
mediately short seed stalks at once spring up, and will, 
if unmolested, mature seeds within a few weeks. The 
cocklebur is the great occupant of fields sown to grain or 
planted to corn. The aim should be to keep sheep from 
such grazing when the fleeces become a mat, as it were, 
of burs. It not only disfigures the form of the sheep be- 
yond expression, but greatly discounts the value of the 
fleece. When plants that injure the character of the wool, 



l80 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

are allowed to grow from year to year in a permanent 
pasture, the owner is blameworthy, as usually they can 
be eradicated without great labor. 

The ideal method of grazing grass pastures is that 
which divides them into fields, so that alternation in the 
grazing may be possible. This provides grazing with 
more freshness and tenderness in it than would be possi- 
ble in uninterrupted grazing. It also tends to prevent 
eating some parts of the pasture close and continuing to 
graze on these to the neglect of grazing on other por- 
tions. The objection to this plan is the cost of the fenc- 
ing. Where keeping sheep is a leading interest, the aim 
should be to provide such fencing, as in its absence graz- 
ing best adapted to all the different seasons cannot be 
furnished. Pastures grazed in the spring will still have 
time to furnish suitable autumn grazing when given a 
period of rest from grazing in the summer. Pastures 
grazed for a longer period in the spring will still have 
time to cover themselves with grass for winter and early 
spring grazing. Blue grass in the North and meadow 
fescue in the South are probably the two best grasses to 
provide such grazing. The protection given by the old 
grass greatly aids early growth in the new, and the two 
eaten together are more suitable than either eaten alone. 

The renovation of pastures grazed by sheep, at least 
on the arable farm, should not be difficult. About the 
only sure means of renovating those of the open range 
is to fence them off and let them rest until, maturing for 
a sufficient length of time, they seed themselves. The 
renovation of the pastures of the arable farm may be 
brought about: (i) Simply by in some way turning open 
the surface ; (2) by sowing seed of certain kinds on them 
when they are thus torn open ; and (3) by means of direct 
fertilization. 

Sheep pastures only require renovation by the first 
method when they become sodbound. Such a condition 
is most liable in quack grass should it be used in provid- 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP l8l 

ing pasture. Next to this, probably is Russian brome, 
and after Russian brome, Kentucky blue grass. The best 
method of opening the soil in the case of quack grass is 
with the plow. The best method of renovating the other 
grasses named is to run a good disk over them in two 
directions in the early spring when the frost has left the 
surface for but a few inches, and then to smooth them 
down with a harrow. 

When additional seed is sown, it may consist in part 
of timothy or other grasses, but more commonly of some 
variety or varieties of clover, sown with the understand- 
ing that their duration shall be more or less transient. 
Their continuance is influenced by the character of the 
soil. Meanwhile they add to the value of the grazing. 

As pastures grazed by sheep are rendered richer in 
available fertility as a result of the grazing, the attempt 
to fertilize them by applications is seldom made. There 
may be times when it is not only legitimate but com- 
mendable, as, for instance, when the ground is being pre- 
pared for a crop to follow when the pastures are broken, 
that calls for a rich soil to produce maximum crops. 
Sheep fed heavily on grain rich in nitrogen, as oilcake, 
will rapidly add to the fertility of the land. In some in- 
stances enrichment may come incidentally, as when 
sheep graze on rape and have access to a grass pasture. 
Usually they rest much on the latter and so enrich it. 

Grazing sheep on supplementary pastures — The chief 
of the requisites to make such grazing successful are the 
following: (i) Ample fencing, movable or permanent; 
(2) a reserve grass pasture, where practicable, to be used 
only when needed ; and (3) conveniences for giving addi- 
tional food and water if necessary. The necessity for 
these requisites increases with increase in the extent to 
which supplementary grazing is used. Where supple- 
mentary grazing is furnished by such plants as rape or 
turnips sown with the grain, it may not be necessary to 
make any marked change in the management from that 



i8j management and feeding of SHEEl' 

ordinarily practiced, but it should be the aim to have a re- 
serve grass pasture for reasons given later (see page 183). 

The necessity for additional fencing increases with 
the intensity of the conditions of the supplementary graz- 
ing. Where the attempt is made to keep sheep almost 
entirely on such grazing, a plan that in many instances 
is entirely feasible, more or less of additional fencing 
should be provided. When the flock is large, it would 
probably be more economical in the end to have the 
fences permanent that inclose these crops. Three to four 
fields should be inclosed, and easy of access. These are 
necessary to furnish succession in grazing, as each can 
usually be made to grow two crops of grazing yearly. 

Where the flock is not large, the grazing may be fur- 
nished by one field, long and narrow, if it can be so 
secured, but it may serve the purpose better to have two 
such fields separated by a lane. Narrowness in such in- 
stances lessens the necessity for using large amounts of 
movable fencing, which when in use, extends across 
rather than lengthwise. It is also an advantage in plow- 
ing when the cross fences 'are not in use. 

Many kinds of movable fencing have been introduced 
and each is possessed of more or less merit, but none of 
these is superior to that now described. As has also been 
shown in Chapter II, it consists of panels made of wood, 
which, when in place, are held so by the headpiece. Each 
panel is composed of three boards 4x1 inches, and a 
fourth one at the bottom 6x1 inches. The boards are 
usually made 12 feet long. Across these horizontal 
boards are nailed three slats 4x1 inches. The end slats 
are nailed on the same side of the horizontal boards, and 
back 6 inches from the ends of the same. The middle slat 
on the other side of the boards is equally distant from 
the ends. The ends of the second board from the top are 
cut off flush with the outside ends of the crossbars. The 
spacing between the boards commencing at the bottom 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 183 

is 6, 6% and 7^ inches respectively. The height of the 
panel is 3 feet 2 inches. 

The headpiece consists of three strips or boards, 
nailed together so as to form a triangle. The bottom 
piece made of material 6x1 inches, is 3 feet 6 inches long 
on the ground side. The two upright pieces that con- 
verge, 4x1 inches, are 4 feet long, and below they are 
nailed on opposite sides of the sole-piece. Above, they 
cross each other about 6 inches from the ends. The 
notches cut above and below, as shown in the drawing, 
are 2 inches wide and 3 inches deep. When in place the 
corresponding slats of the panels just fill the notches 
which keep them in position. The nails used are 3^ 
inches long of the wrought or wire type and should be 
well clinched when in place. 

Such a fence is easily set up or taken down and may 
be quickly moved. It should be made of lumber, pref- 
erably strong and light and that will not warp. If handled 
carefully it should last many years with but little repair, 
but if used roughly the duration of its usefulness will be 
short. Its weakest point probably, is liability to shift 
with the wind. To guard against this a small piece of 
board sharpened below is driven down several inches 
into the ground. It may be driven down beside the head- 
piece, or it may follow the slant of the same. In either 
case a nail is driven through this piece of board and into 
the headpiece, and it should be on the windward side. 
These stakes are not difficult to loosen when the fence is 
to be removed. A number of panels of such fencing will 
be found useful on any farm where many sheep are kept 
and during all seasons. 

A reserve grass pasture is a great convenience when 
sheep are much grazed on supplementary pastures. It 
furnishes a place: (i) On which to graze the sheep when 
the supplementary pastures are wet with rain or dew; 
and (2) on which to graze them for days even in succes- 
sion, should the supplementary pastures not be ready. 



184 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

They also furnish a change that tends to reduce or en- 
tirely prevent scouring, the frequent accompaniment of 
grazing on supplementary pastures. When sheep graze 
on such pastures that have made much growth while they 
are wet with dew or rain, they soil the grazing with their 
feet, break much of it down and may also impact some 
kinds of soil. 

There may be instances when such pastures cannot 
be furnished. There may be other instances when, in the 
hope of more effectively combating stomach worms and 
other forms of parasitic life, it is desirable to keep the 
sheep away from old pasture grounds. In such instances 
it would be necessary to use the sheds as a refuge for the 
sheep when not on the supplementary pastures. At such 
times it may be necessary to feed them in the sheds 
throughout the continuance of storms, and more or less 
at other times. Should this be necessary, no more con- 
venient place could be secured for such feeding or for provid- 
ing water, nor would it be possible to furnish sheds in 
better form than through the medium of the sheds. 

Benefits from supplemental grazing — Prominent 
among the benefits from supplemental grazing for sheep 
are: (i) Aid in removing parasites; (2) increase in pro- 
duction from a given area ; (3) rendering aid in destroy- 
ing weeds; and (4) the effect on fertilization. These will 
be considered further, and also some of the objections to 
the system. 

The all-important question of parasites in sheep is yet 
but imperfectly understood, more especially with refer- 
ence to the complete life history of some of these. Until 
this is known it is probable that the very best methods of 
combating some of these will not be understood. It has 
been quite well established, however, that when ewes and 
lambs are much sustained on freshly sown supplementary 
pastures, especially in the spring, and when they are kept 
away from old pasture grounds in the meantime, the 
lambs sufifer much less from such parasites and tape- 



PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 185 

worms and stomach worms than when managed in the 
ordinary way. 

The increase in the return of wool and mutton comes 
from the increase in the food grown on a given area when 
it is thus grown. The food furnished from a certain area 
sown to rape, for instance, may be several times as much 
as would be obtained from the same or an equal area of 
old grass pasture. The extent of the increase will con- 
tinually vary with the different conditions, but the fact 
that usually there is increase should draw favorable at- 
tention to the growing of these crops. That such addi- 
tional increase will more than offset the additional cost 
of labor is also true in many instances ; in fact, in a great 
majority of these should constitute a further claim for 
such attention. 

The aid thus furnished in destroying weeds is most 
substantial and far reaching. Especially is this true 
should the land thus used be confined to the growing of 
catch crops for two or three successive years, and it is 
more emphatically true with the increase in the number 
of the crops grown and grazed. The results claimed fol- 
low from the influence which frequent plowing has on the 
germination of weed seeds lying in the soil and on the 
destruction of weeds by burial, also through the crossing 
of the same while being grazed. The eradication of such 
annuals as wild mustard is greatly facilitated by the great 
increase in germination resulting over ordinary methods 
of cultivation. Each seed thus germinated grows a plant 
that is consumed. The eradication of biennials becomes 
easy and sure through their burial. The eradication of 
perennials in much less sure, owing to the way in which 
they multiply in the soil ; but if some of the supple- 
mentary crops grown, as rape, should be grown and cul- 
tivated, all forms of perennials treated thus would be 
greatly lessened. 

This method of fighting weeds, in the judgment of the 
author, will be very efficacious. The opinion thus given 



1 86 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

is based to a considerable extent on his own personal 
experience. It should also prove one of the cheapest 
methods of fighting weeds that can be devised in areas 
where sheep are an important factor in agriculture. But 
while land is so abundant such intensive methods of pro- 
viding food for sheep will probably be not much prac- 
ticed. The little labor involved in keeping sheep on grass 
pastures is one of its strongest recommendations, while 
the system outlined involves much labor. It is just a 
question for those who are willing to pay the price. 

The influence on fertilization is favorable. This 
arises, first, from the fact that the food grown is con- 
sumed on the land ; second, from the fertility brought up 
from the subsoil in the crops grown, a large part of which 
goes back again on the cultivated strata ; and, third, from 
the growing of such crops as cowpeas, soy beans and 
other quick-growing legumes to provide grazing. True, 
there is some fertility removed in the flesh and the wool 
produced, but experience has shown that lands treated 
thus produce bountiful crops for a time subsequently to 
such treatment ; hence the inference would seem legiti- 
mate that there was increase in available fertility to more 
than offset the decrease resulting from what was re- 
moved in the flesh and wool. 

There are some serious difficulties to be met and 
overcome by those who graze sheep thus intensively. One 
of these is the labor involved. Under existing conditions 
that is one of the most serious, but when a family is 
growing up of an age to render help, the difficulty is so 
far removed. A second is the cost of the fencing called 
for. A third is the increase in land required to grow 
crops thus in quick succession, and a fourth is the im- 
perative demand made upon the team labor of the farm 
when it can ill be spared from other work. The fact re- 
mains, nevertheless, that the production can be increased 
enormously when sheep are largely grazed on such sup- 
plemental foods. 



CHAPTER X 
FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 

The points chiefly dwelt upon in Chapter X are the 
following: (i) Sheep finished on grass pastures without 
grain ; (2) Sheep finished on grass pastures with grain ; 
(3) Finishing on western grain fields ; (4) Finishing on 
rape; (5) Finishing on corn; (6) Finishing on peas; (7) 
Finishing on field roots ; and (8) Finishing on other crops. 

Finishing on grass without grain — Not many de- 
cades ago more sheep, it is believed, were sent to the mar- 
kets from the pastures without grain than reached it 
through all other channels. This condition is rapidly 
changing, owing to the following among other causes : (i) 
Farmers are coming to know more and more about the 
possible profit from finishing range sheep on their farms, 
both in the fields and in the sheds; (2) the effect in ad- 
vancing prices inclines ranchmen to favor selling as 
stockers rather than for slaughter; and (3) the sharp dis- 
crimination in the prices paid encourages the finishing of 
sheep in good form. 

When sheep are finished on grass pastures only, the 
character of the mutton is much influenced by the variety 
of the grazing. It is a foregone conclusion that, to obtain 
a juicy carcass, it must be finished on food with more or 
less succulence in it. It is not to be expected, therefore, 
that mutton finished on dry western ranges after mid- 
summer and without other food than the range furnishes 
would be lacking in juiciness, however excellent its other 
qualities may be. The large quantities of mutton that 
came from this source would seem to be so far respon- 
sible for the comparatively low estimate put upon mut- 
ton by the masses of our people until recent years. It 
would not be possible to build up a high national reputa- 

187 



l88 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

tion for mutton finished only on grass pastures. But it 
does not follow that good mutton may not be grown on 
grasses only, as is shown below. 

The pastures best adapted to the production of good 
mutton are those which combine palatability, succulence 
and nutrition in the highest degree. This means that the 
best quality of mutton finished only on grasses will come 
from areas comparatively moist, as these only can main- 
tain the requisite succulence in the grasses. Blue grass 
is possessed of the requisite qualities in a marked degree 
for making good mutton. Along with clover of sufficient 
maturity it should make mutton possessed of good finish. 
While succulence is essential in the grazing for the pro- 
duction of juicy mutton, over-succulence retards fatten- 
ing, which explains why sheep are usually in a lower con- 
dition at the close of an unusually wet season than at the 
close of one possessed of average moisture. 

Something depends on the breed or grade of the 
sheep and also on the age, viewed from the standpoint of 
adaptation for such finishing. Sheep small in size rela- 
tively will make a better finish usually than those that 
are large, their lightness favoring easy movement. For 
a similar reason sheep short of maturit}^ will have some 
advantage over sheep fully matured, and more especially 
over old sheep. It is also reasonable to suppose that 
sheep not accustomed to a grain supplement will also 
fare better under such conditions than those that have 
been much used to such a supplement. 

It has been found that the mutton made from grass 
pastures only on the arable farm is superior in juiciness as 
a rule to that made on the open range, the reason for 
which will be obvious. It has also been found that the 
highest quality in such mutton comes from sheep kept 
in limited numbers in proportion to the pasture. The 
sheep are thus enabled to gather food in much variety 
and such as they relish most, hence the good finish which 
they soon make and its high quality. In this way nearly 



FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 189 

all farmers may provide for their tables a luxury in the 
meat line by simply keeping a small band of sheep to 
gather food, much of which but for their presence would 
go to waste. More sheep could be used in this way, and 
with much advantage to the owners, than are now found 
in all the United States. 

Finishing on grass with grain — The attempt to finish 
sheep that have been carried through the winter on grass 
pastures, as cattle are frequently fattened, is not of fre- 
quent occurrence. That it is not arises probably from the 
following among other reasons: (i) Except as lambs 
sheep are seldom sold for slaughter from the early pas- 
tures, and the later pastures are generally more or less sup- 
plementary; (2) the quick fertilizing of the land has sel- 
dom been sought by feeding grain to sheep on grass pas- 
tures ; and (3) it has been found that they can be fattened 
more cheaply and satisfactorily when the grass pastures 
are supplemented by other grazing, as rape, roots, corn or 
peas. The materials for early finishing on grass are often 
scarce, as lambs are usually sold under the age of one 
year, or before the new grass comes, and the dams are 
employed at that season in nursing their lambs except in 
the case of those that may have suckled early or milk 
lambs. 

That direct profit will result from feeding grain to 
ewes that are nursing early lambs, while they nurse them 
and subsequently, though on good grass pastures, can 
scarcely be doubted. When the ewes also are to be sold 
as soon as they can be made ready for the market, any 
loss of flesh should be prevented by such feeding wdien 
the change is made from the shed to the pastures. That 
direct profit will result from feeding Avethers grain under 
such conditions has not been determined apparently by 
experiment. The chances are against it. But the full 
return from such feeding of grain must include the manu- 
rial benefits given to the land. 

The wisdom of grazing and even of fattening sheep in 



IQO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

orchards under proper conditions of management is not to 
be questioned. No cheaper method of fertihzing the orchard 
can be devised. The following are among the benefits from 
such grazing and feeding : ( 1 ) The sheep consume the grass, 
weeds and young sprouts around the trees. (2) They con- 
sume all the fallen fruit and will thus destroy all insect 
life which it may contain. The injury from the presence 
of the codling moth in apple orchards may thus be greatly 
reduced. (3) They distribute fertilizer in a form that is 
readily available and proportionate to the food given to 
them. (4) They break up the top soil more or less ac- 
cording to the conditions present, and thus aid in the 
retention of soil moisture. Except in the case of old trees, 
however, which carry rough bark, it is absolutely neces- 
sary to protect the trunks of the trees by putting around 
them loose wire netting. The sheep will also trim back 
the tips of the fruit-laden limbs that may come within 
their reach, and also consume the fruit which they carry 
if grazed long enough in the orchard. 

Whether the sheep are simply carried through the 
season or are prepared for the block where fertilization is 
sought, they must be given supplemental food. To meet 
the former condition, wheat bran and oilcake should be 
freely fed, since both are rich in valuable fertilizing ele- ' 
ments; and to suit the latter condition the aim should 
be to feed freely corn and oilcake, the former being given 
to promote quick fattening. The grain troughs should 
be distributed in various parts of the orchard or fre- 
quently moved to promote the even distribution of the 
manure. Water must be supplied, and salt at all times. 

The number of the sheep thus grazed on an acre may 
be regulated by the amount and character of the food 
given. Some regard, however, must be had to the pasture 
which the orchard furnishes when soiling food is not fur- 
nished. The fallen fruit is not of much value as a fat- 
tener because of its immaturity and acidity, and when 
sheep are first introduced into orchards it may be neces- 



FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I9I 

sary to introduce them cautiously lest digestive derange- 
ment should result. 

Finishing on western grain fields — On western grain 
fields a large amount of valuable food for sheep remains 
after the crop has been removed. It remains in the form 
of fallen heads during the processes of harvesting and in 
the form of weeds of many kinds, which in many in- 
stances carpet the ground because of the numbers in 
which they are present. In many instances also they con- 
tain weed seeds which contain fattening properties, as 
those of wild buckwheat. If given the opportunity sheep 
will gather and consume many of the fallen heads, much 
of the matured weed seeds, and a large proportion of the 
herbage that grows on the ground amid the stubbles. 
The area that may be thus grazed is very large, but such 
grazing is not without its difficulties. 

Among the difficulties to be met the following are 
prominent : (i) The almost entire lack of fencing makes it 
necessary to maintain a herder during the period of graz- 
ing. (2) The harvest, especially in northern areas, is fre- 
quently so late that the duration of the period for graz- 
ing is short, too short in many instances to put a good 
finish on the sheep or lambs before the ground freezes. 
(3) As the ground is to grow grain the following season, 
the aim is to plow it before winter, and to accomplish 
this it is necessary that the plowing be begun as soon as 
possible after the grain has been harvested. Nevertheless 
very large flocks of sheep have been thus grazed with 
profit to the owners, since the pastures are obtained with- 
out cost. If the finishing can be completed on mature 
corn grazing, it is usually an improvement, as such graz- 
ing may frequently be continued after other grazing has 
been destroyed wnth frost. 

Where the farm is fenced, the finishing of sheep thus 
in a moderate way by farmers whose families may furnish 
the requisite labor should prove profitable. The fenced 
farm, or a part of it, makes it possible to keep the sheep 



192 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

together and unherded when occasion calls for it. Graz- 
\yg on the adjoining unfenced farms is usually welcomed 
because of the weeds consumed. If rape or turnips or 
both have been sown amid the grain, the pasture is so 
improved, but the aim should be to consume these before 
hard freezing. The value of these foods in the stubbles, 
which is quite material in southern Minnesota, grows less 
with higher latitude. The stocks for such grazing may 
usually be secured from the ranges west. 

In some seasons it happens that on low and ill-drained 
prairie lands, the grain cannot be harvested in the usual 
way. The saturated ground will not sufficiently sustain 
the reaper that would harvest the crop. In a few days the 
grain has so fallen down that it cannot be reaped when 
the ground has again become firm. In such instances 
sheep have been successfully used to harvest the crop. 

Finishing sheep on rape — No pasture plant that has 
yet been introduced has been found equal to rape for fat- 
tening sheep quickly and satisfactorily. The dwarf Essex 
is the variety most commonly grown. The service which 
this small plant has rendered to sheep husbandry in 
America during recent years has been very great, and the 
service that it may yet render it would not be easy to 
overestimate. Those who may desire information with 
reference to the growing of this plant are referred to the 
book. "Cultivated Crops," by the author. 

The ideal conditions for fattening sheep on rape call 
for the following: (i) That the rape shall be well on 
toward maturity before it is reaped ; (2) that a grass pas- 
ture shall be available to which the sheep may have free 
access while they are feeding on the rape ; and (3) that the 
climate is such that the winter does not close in suddenly. 

When the rape is possessed of much stalk in propor- 
tion to the leaf growth, it is not so laxative as the more 
tender early leaf growth, and it furnishes more food to 
the acre. Moreover, the sheep will eat the stems down 
close to the ground. But when rape is sown early, and 



FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I93 

especially in climates that are warm, the danger is some- 
times present that the crop may be covered by the green 
aphis. When so affected its feeding value is greatly re- 
duced or even destroyed in proportion to the violence of 
the attacks of those insects. 

The benefit arising from giving sheep grazed on rape 
access also to a grass pasture is found in the favorable in- 
fluence that the less succulent grass exercises on the 
digestion. It tends to prevent and also to correct scours 
which arise from feeding on rape, especially when first 
introduced to such grazing. Pastures with much dead 
grass on them are the most suitable. Kentucky blue grass 
pastures that have not been closely grazed during the 
early season of growth have been found to answer the 
purpose well. The sheep seem instinctively to crave 
more or less of such grazing at such a time. Experiments 
conducted by the author showed marked benefit from 
access to such grazing. 

The autumn season after the summer heat has gone, has 
been found the most favorable for finishing sheep on such 
grazing. The more prolonged the period covered by the 
autumn, therefore, the more prolonged is the period for 
grazing. Rape sown not too early readily retains its green- 
ness in cool autumn weather, even after it has ceased to 
grow. Where the autumns are short and where winter 
comes suddenly danger is present that more or less of 
the crop will be lost. In damp climates it may be lost by 
early snowfall which remains all winter. In dry climates 
it may be lost by sudden freezing so severe as to wilt the 
crop. 

Some caution should be used when introducing sheep to 
a rape pasture, or much loss may result. They are usually 
much prone to feed on rape so ravenously as to induce bloat- 
ing. This, when unrelieved, may produce death in a very 
short time. The danger increases with greater succulence in 
the rape and with increase in moisture on the plants. Two 
methods have been adopted of meeting the danger. By the 



194 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

first the sheep are introduced to the rape gradually — that is, 
by allowing them to graze but a short time the first day, and 
increasing the time from day to day until they are allowed 
to remain all the time on the rape. Before turning them on 
to the grazing each day they are fed liberally dry hay or 
grain, or are allowed to satisfy the appetite, in great part at 
least, by grazing on a grass pasture. From half a week to a 
week is usually occupied in thus preparing them for perma- 
nent grazing on the rape. 

By the second method they are allowed to take all the 
safe food that they can consume of some material that they 
relish, as good grass, and thenceforth they are put upon the 
rape and not removed from it unless in case of severe storm. 
This method is much simpler than the other, and it is not 
usually attended with much hazard when the sheep have 
access to an old grass pasture. In no instances should sheep 
be turned in to graze on rape when they are hungry. Close 
attention should be given to the sheep while being grazed on 
rape, as the assurance is never present that there will be no 
loss from bloating. It would seem quite safe to say that such 
losses decrease: (i) With increase in the maturity of the 
rape; (2) with decrease in its succulence from any cause or 
causes ; and (3) with increase in the other food given along 
with the rape, especially in the dry form. Increase in the 
maturity of the rape or decrease of moisture in the climate 
lessens succulence in the rape, and as a result makes it a safer 
food. In the author's experience rape grown in Ontario, 
Canada, caused bloat with much more frequency than rape 
grown west of the upper Mississippi. But nowhere is the 
liability to bloat so little present as to justify grazing very 
valuable sheep upon it without exercising all due caution to 
make it impossible for bloating to arise. This may be done 
by turning them on to the rape only after having eaten freely 
of other food. Another safe way is to cut the rape and feed 
it more or less wilted, according to the amount fed. When 
rape is grown amid the grain stubbles the liability to bloating 
is reduced, because of the presence of other food. It is also 



FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I95 

possible to reduce the hazard from bloating so as to almost 
entirely eliminate it by the judicious feeding of grain, espe- 
cially in the early morning, but grain is a more expensive 
food than rape. It should be the aim to visit the flock at 
least twice a day, and more frequently at first. Should any 
be found suffering from bloat, it may be possible to relieve 
them. Should any be found not long dead from this cause, 
if the throat is cut open with promptness, the meat is still 
good for food, notwithstanding the prejudice that some may 
have in regard to eating it. In any event the hide and wool 
thereon will far more than pay for its removal. 

When sheep are first put upon rape, in some instances 
many of them scour, especially in the absence of access to 
old grass pastures and in the absence of a grain supplement. 
The animals afifected may be known readily by the soiling 
which this condition induces. They should be tagged with 
promptness, and if subsequently the scouring continues, it 
may be necessary to remove them and put them on a dry 
ration for a time. Sheep have a great craving for salt when 
on such grazing, and it should be so abundantly supplied to 
them that they will at all times have access to it. When given 
in covered troughs the rain cannot dissolve it as when ex- 
posed. It is believed that the salt tends to correct the scour- 
ing, and the belief would seem well founded. Sheep will 
seldom take additional water when they are feeding on rape. 

In some areas prolonged storms occur during the rape- 
grazing season. When these do occur the sheep should not 
be allowed to remain long exposed to them. The rape plants 
are so tall that sheep and lambs grazing among them at such 
a time get much bedrabbled. and as such rains are usually 
cold, such a condition is decidedly harmful. To remove the 
sheep at such a time may call for the aid of a saddle horse. 
When visiting the flock at any time, a saddle horse will make 
it possible to greatly expedite the work. 

When white frosts come and cover the leaves, they bring 
with them additional hazard. When such food is taken into 
the stomach in very large quantities, the irritation following 



196 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

may soon result in the death of the animal. These results 
may be prevented by confining the sheep to the grass pas- 
tures until the sun has removed the rime. Where this can- 
not be done, a feed of grain given in the very early morning 
before grazing begins will usually, if not indeed in all in- 
stances, prove a measure of safety. In some areas the early 
snow falls upon the rape and in a day or two vanishes. This 
does not lessen the value of the rape for grazing unless 
severe frost accompanies or precedes the snowfall. When 
frost occurs severe enough at any time to cause the rape to 
wilt, its feeding properties are much injured. When the 
wilting is marked in the stems, the attempt to fatten sheep 
upon it further should be abandoned, nor should it form any 
large proportion of the food of other sheep. 

The sustaining and fattening power of well-grown rape 
is very great. The Wisconsin station grew 36 tons per acre, 
and the Ontario station 2^ tons. Doubtless even the amount 
first named could be exceeded. Twelve tons per acre is a 
very moderate crop. On well-grown rape 15 well-grown 
lambs may be grazed for about 60 days on an acre, and if the 
lambs are of good quality they should increase at the rate 
of 10 to 12 pounds per month. Common lambs should in- 
crease on rape alone from eight to 10 pounds per month. In 
one instance the author obtained an increase of 14.3 pounds 
per month from rape only and a gain at the rate of 762 
pounds per acre. From common sheep or lambs an increase 
of 300 to 400 pounds should be forthcoming from an aver- 
age acre of good rape. The author obtained an increase of 
179 pounds per acre from rape sown at the Ontario station, 
August 12, after a crop of winter wheat had been harvested. 
I'Vom what has been said the relative cheapness and profit- 
ableness of rape as a food for fattening sheep will be readily 
apparent, and all the more so when it is called to mind that 
rape is frequently grown as a catch crop. In estimating the 
profit, the enhanced value of the weight of carcass when the 
grazing begins should be considered. 

The question as to whether sheep should be given grain 



FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I97 

or not while they are being grazed on rape will turn upon 
facts such as relate to the abundance of the rape, the cir- 
cumstances attending the grazing and the cost or value of the 
grain. There can be no doubt that the feeding of grain will 
proportionately extend the period for grazing the rape. Nor 
can there be any doubt that the feeding of grain is in some 
measure a safeguard: (i) When the rape is immature or 
unusually succulent; (2) when it is grazed in the absence of 
a grass pasture; and (3) when the rape is more or less 
frozen or -even covered with rime. It would seem safe to 
say that when the sheep have no other grazing than rape, 
the value of the grain fed will more than be recovered in the 
returns from the sheep. This, however, does not seem to be 
true when the sheep have access at the same time to an old 
blue grass pasture. In the experience of Prof John A. Craig, 
and also of the author, the increase made from feeding a 
supplement of grain to sheep that were being grazed on rape 
only was less than that resulting from rape and blue grass 
pastures, and the latter furnishes a relatively cheaper food 
than the former. 

Finishing sheep on corn — The finishing of sheep on 
corn by allowing the sheep to harvest the corn is grow- 
ing in favor in certain areas. The high cost of labor gives 
encouragement to the practice. It is most in favor in 
those areas in which corn of the small and quick-growing 
varieties has the best chance to mature, but to some ex- 
tent it is practiced in areas where large and later varieties 
may mature. This method of putting land in condition to 
grow good crops of wheat and other grain has met with 
much favor in certain parts of North Dakota. 

Any variety of corn that will mature with reasonable 
certainty in the climate where grown will serve the pur- 
pose, but those varieties that bear much ear relatively to 
the stalk are the most suitable. Some of the squaw corns 
have been found very suitable. The great hardihood of 
these corns makes it safe to plant them earlier than it 
would be safe to plant other varieties. In some instances 



198 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

sweet corn is grown which matures within a short period. 
Sweet corn would seem eminently adapted to such graz- 
ing in areas where reasonably large varieties of sweet 
corn can be grown, as sheep will consume much of the 
fodder in addition to the grain when harvesting sweet 
corn. 

Such grazing should be begun in a cautious way, or 
disaster may come to the flock through disturbed diges- 
tion. This, however, is not necessarily accompanied by 
bloating, as in the case of rape. The increase that may 
be made in the duration of the successive periods of graz- 
ing may be determined by watching the droppings closely. 
Excessive consumption of the fresh corn tends to induce 
scouring. The benefit from having a reserve grass pas- 
ture on hand at such a time, as in the case of rape, will be 
at once apparent. The sheep may then be allowed to go 
on the corn when they are not hungry, until they get 
accustomed to it. 

In grain-growing areas where grass pastures have 
not been provided sheep are brought in from the West 
and begin grazing amid the stubbles, and from these they 
are gradually transferred to the corn grazing. In some 
instances rape is grown amid the stubbles and also in the 
corn. In either case it will be found helpful, but when 
sheep have become so accustomed to corn that they ar^ 
grazed on it alone, it makes a cheap and reasonably safe 
fattening food on which to finish them. Should the win- 
ter close in early, the grazing may continue, but in such 
instances it is specially important that the corn shall be 
well matured so that the frost may not increase its flinti- 
ness. It will be found helpful also at such a time to be 
able to feed corn from the bundle, or it may be clover or 
alfalfa, to supplement the food thus gathered during the 
day. At no time should sheep that are being thus fat- 
tened be made to glean too closely, or the loss may be 
more than the gain. Other sheep will do such gleaning 
more satisfactorily. 



FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I99 

The highest adaptation to this method of fattening- 
sheep is found in areas where the normal weather condi- 
tions of the autumn are dry rather than moist, and where 
the advent of winter does not come with such suddenness. 
These conditions are usually found in areas within or bor- 
dering on the semi-arid belt. But even in areas with 
more rainfall sheep may also be finished thus with ad- 
vantage and profit. Especially is this true of sweet corn 
that may be too smutty for canning. Store sheep will 
also make a reasonably good use of frosted corn in the 
fields when they are judiciously given access to it. 

Finishing sheep on peas — During recent years the 
finishing of sheep on peas mainly has grown into an ex- 
tensive industry in the San Luis Valley, Col. The eleva- 
tion is about 7000 feet above the sea level. The summer 
climate is cool, light frosts being present almost every 
month in the year. The crop is grown in part by subter- 
ranean irrigation natural to much of the valley, but some- 
times it is grown by irrigation applied in the usual way. 
Among the principal varieties grown are the Mexican and 
the small green and white varieties of the Canada field 
pea. 

From 40 to 50 pounds are sown per acre with the 
ordinary seed drill, and enough oats are sown along with 
them to sustain the peas, which tends to lessen the waste 
while the peas are being harvested. When the peas are 
ripe, sheep and lambs are turned in to graze upon them. 
In some instances the flock is given a wide range, but 
where it can be done the method that grazes off the field 
in successive divisions is preferred. Other sheep are 
sometimes made to follow those that are being fattened, 
as they are, of course, much better adapted to such glean- 
ing. An acre of good peas should fatten, it is said, from 
10 to 15 lambs, and that the Iambs should gain about 10 
pounds per month. This would make the feeding value 
of such peas about equal to that of a good crop of well- 
grown rape. The peas, however, would have the ad- 



200 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

vantage over both rape and corn in the nitrogen brought 
to the land w^hile they were growing. 

The possibiHty of extending such grazing so as to 
include wide areas of the mountain country would seem 
to be of easy realization. The more important of the 
essentials are: (i) A soil with the requisite food elements 
to grow the grain ; (2) a climate suitable to the growing 
of the crop, and what is even more important, to the 
harvesting of the same by sheep ; (3) stock sheep not too 
distant that may be secured for finishing. These condi- 
tions are present, it is claimed, in considerable areas of 
several mountain states, including New Mexico, Wyo- 
ming, Utah, Nevada, California, Oregon, Washington, 
Idaho and Montana. Some of those valleys are already 
proverbial for the excellent crops of peas which they 
grow. By no other method can fertility be brought more 
cheaply to these lands than by grazing down on them 
some kind of legume. 

Finishing sheep on field roots — The author has not 
met with any instances in which sheep have been finished 
in the country on field roots where the latter were har- 
vested by the sheep. Such a method of finishing them, 
however, should be quite feasible in certain parts of the 
United States, as it is in certain parts of Britain. Sheep 
have long been fattened thus in Britain, with a small sup- 
plement of grain added. Such winter fattening, as it may 
be termed, would only be feasible where the frost did not 
hinder feeding on the turnips. There should be areas 
where this ought to be practicable in the Gulf States, in 
some of the western mountain valleys and in portions of 
some of the Pacific States. It would, of course, be possi- 
ble to cover over rows of roots for temporary use by 
strewing earth over them with a plow, enough being 
plowed out each day for present use. 

Wherever winter crops of cabbages can be grown for 
the northern markets, crops of roots may also be grown 
and grazed off where they grow. The question, there- 



FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 201 

fore, resolves itself into one of the greatest relative profit. 
Such grazing could be used in fattening, a grain supple- 
ment being added, or it could be used to furnish grazing 
for ewes nursing milk lambs. Corn would furnish a good 
supplemental grain food. 

The grazing of roots upon grain fields has already 
been touched upon (see page 191). Of course, it would 
be quite practicable to harvest entire crops of roots by 
such a system, but the land that will grow the roots will 
also grow rape, and the latter may be grown with much 
less outlay for labor than the former. 

Finishing sheep on other crops — It would seem quite 
practicable to finish sheep on some other crops not enu- 
merated above, or if it were not desired to finish the sheep 
they could be made to feed on these crops and thereby 
contribute greatly to the fertilization of the land. Prom- 
inent among these crops are cowpeas, soy beans and 
pumpkins and squashes. 

Cowpeas may be grown over wide areas in the South 
after other early maturing crops have been reaped. The 
value of the grazing will increase with the volume of the 
crop and, up to a certain limit, with the advanced stage of 
growth. Supplementary grain should be supplied when 
necessary for fattening, and corn is very suitable for such 
a use. Soy beans would seem to answer the purpose bet- 
ter than cowpeas, as they produce more grain to the straw 
than cowpeas. They are also of upright growth, and the 
pods are near to one another, hence they are of easy access 
to the sheep. Sheep should fatten quickly on such graz- 
ing, but experience on the question has up to the present 
been practically unattainable. Those who have fed 
pumpkins to sheep are loud in their praises. They claim 
that when used to pumpkins, no limit may be set to the 
quantities fed, as long as they are consumed so as to avoid 
waste. They are specially helpful to sheep and lambs 
that are being pushed forward on corn. They are more 
commonly strewn over grass pastures when fed. At the 



202 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

first it may be necessary to cut them open and to sprinkle 
them with salt, but soon the sheep become fond of them. 
Squashes of the soft-shelled varieties only are adapted 
to such feeding. Whether pumpkin seeds thus consumed 
by lambs tend to protect them from intestinal parasites 
of certain kinds has not been made quite clear. 



CHAPTER XI 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 

In Chapter XI the following phases of fattening 
sheep and lambs are discussed: (i) The sources from 
which they may be obtained; (2) Selecting sheep for fat- 
tening; (3) Quarters suitable for feeding; (4) Leading 
sheep up to full feeding; (5) The fodders that are suit- 
able; (6) The succulence that is suitable; (7) The con- 
centrates that are suitable; (8) Self-feeders and their 
place; (9) Fattening sheep on sugar beet pulp; (10) 
Feeding sheep on western ranges; (11) Fattening sheep 
on screenings; (12) Fattening two lots in succession; 
(13) The hazard to breeding flocks from fattening sheep 
brought in from outside sources ; (14) All sheep should be 
fattened on the farm; (15) The duration of the fattening 
period ; (16) The increase from sheep while fattening, and 
(17) The profit from fattening sheep in winter. 

Sources from which obtained — Lambs for fattening 
may be grown on the farm or purchased from other farms 
or from the ranges. Sheep for fattening are usually ob- 
tained from range sources, but in some instances they 
also may come from the farm, as when disposing of aged 
ewes. These, however, are more commonly fattened on 
autumn pastures. 

The aim should be to fatten lambs on the farm on 
which they are grown and for the following reasons: (i) 
When thus fattened all the profit resulting from the 
transaction comes to the grower of the lambs ; (2) when 
thus fattened the profit should be more than when the 
lambs are fattened elsewhere ; (3) the hazard of bringing 
in disease is lessened. That more profit should accrue 
when the lambs are fattened on the farm on which they 
were grown is self-evident, as no expense is incurred in 



204 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

purchasing, such as must be incurred when the lambs are 
brought in from an outside source. Where the facilities 
for fattening are present, it is very evident that if it pays 
a purchaser to buy the lambs and take them to another 
farm to fatten them, it should pay the grower better to 
fatten them at home. 

When the market is near, selling lambs to be fat- 
tened on other farms finds little justification. It may be 
different when the lambs must be shipped. It may prove 
unduly expensive to ship them in any other way than in 
carload lots. To accomplish this it may be necessary to 
add to the lambs grown, by purchase, or to sell them to 
another. This difficulty could, of course, be met by 
shipping finished lots in a co-operative way. Of course, 
it is better to sell lambs in the finished than in the un- 
finished form ; hence the farmer who purchases lamibs 
from other farmers and fattens them may be doing a good 
work. Nevertheless it is better in every way, when it can 
be done, to fatten the lambs on farms on which they are 
grown. Of course, there are farms on which this cannot 
be done, as, for instance, where so large a proportion of 
the farm is too rugged to grow food other than pasture. 
If fattened at all, the lambs growing on these farms must 
be fattened elsewhere. 

The most important source by far at the present time 
from which sheep and lambs can be obtained in the 
United States are the ranges of the West. Those grown 
on the open range cannot be finished there. If fattened, 
it must be in the mountain valleys where food is grown 
with the aid of irrigation, or on arable farms that lie east- 
ward from the ranges. The number fattened in the moun- 
tain valleys as yet is relatively small, nor is it probable 
that those valleys will be able in the future to furnish 
food enough to fatten all the lambs grown on the ranges 
adjacent to them. The surplus must needs be fattened on 
the arable farm. 

For such fattening they may be obtained by purchase 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 20$ 

directly from the range or at the stock yards to which 
they are shipped, chiefly in the autumn season. When the 
number wanted for feeding is large, it may be more profit- 
able to purchase on the range, but where only a small 
number is wanted they may be obtained most conveni- 
ently from the stock yards. Here also co-operation may 
he resorted to when necessary, but in nearly all instances 
those farmers who purchase lambs for fattening aim to 
feed not less than a carload lot. even though a part or all 
of the food must needs be purchased. 

Selecting sheep for fattening — In the selection of 
sheep for fattening, form and size are much more im- 
portant than breed or grade. It would not be correct to 
say that breed is of no account, for all breeds are not 
equally popular on the block. All things considered, the 
most popular sheep with the butcher are those of the 
middle wool breeds, and especially the smaller of these, 
as the Southdown and Shropshire. But sheep of any 
breed or grade with the required form will take the mar- 
ket readily when well finished and of suitable size and 
weight. 

With reference to form, whether lambs or mature 
sheep are fed, the aim should be to select them as far as 
possible of the smooth, compact and short-limbed types 
for the breed or grade which they represent. The pref- 
erence should be for animals with firm, strong and 
straight backs, round bodies denoting good spring of rib, 
and much width through the shoulders and thighs. They 
should have rosy or pink skins, indicating a healthy con- 
dition of the system. 

As to the size, the aim should be to have them con- 
form as nearly as may be practicable to the needs of the 
market. The market demand may differ in dififerent 
localities, but the smooth, neat carcass, with bone not 
more than medium, is always preferred to the carcass 
rough, or of the lanky order. Lambs that weigh not 
more than 60 to 70 pounds when put on feed are to be 



206 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

preferred to those that are older, as they will then take 
the market at weights under rather than over lOO pounds. 
Weights even lighter than those named are preferred to 
those that are heavier. Sheep of the medium and smooth 
types are also preferred for fattening to those that are 
larger. Heavy-weight lambs and wethers, such as were 
much sought for years ago, are no longer in highest favor 
with dealers or consumers. 

The favorite age at which to turn off feeding lambs 
is not a matter of so much importance as the weight 
which the lambs reach when marketed. It is necessary 
to sell lambs of the large breeds at an early age, lest they 
become too heavy for the market demands. The weight 
attained by mature sheep will vary, of course, with the 
breed. The plan of fattening wethers at an age under one 
year is continually growing in favor. The maintenance 
of wethers for a longer period is now mainly confined to 
the western ranges, and even on these it is growing less 
in favor, as the maintenance of breeding ewes is thought 
to be more profitable. 

The age at which lambs shall be marketed is of much 
less consequence than the weight which they possess. 
The aim should be to have them reach the market as near 
as may be possible to the favorite weights. To accom- 
plish this it will be necessary to sell lambs of the large 
breeds at an earlier age than those of the smaller breeds. 
Shearlings make gains more quickly than sheep that are 
older, and they call for a somewhat more nitrogenous diet 
to aid in advancing development, though not so much so 
as in the case with lambs. The older the sheep, the more 
the food that is called for to make increase, and the more 
carbonaceous may the ration be. The older that breed- 
ing ewes are, the more expensive is it relatively to fatten 
them and the less the price that is paid for them in the 
market. 

The condition of the sheep and lambs at the time of 
purchase has an important bearing on the resultant profit, 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 207 

if any, from feeding them. When purchased by weight, 
the less of fat which they carry in proportion to the entire 
weight the less opportunity is there for making increase, 
but the lack of flesh should not be such as is associated 
with a condition of positive lack of thrift. In other words, 
when purchasing such animals, capacity to make increase 
is more important than increase already made. But lean- 
ness must not be present to the extent of calling for a 
period too long relatively to bring the system into a con- 
dition that capacitates it for making rapid increase. 
Should the animals be purchased by the head, then, of 
course, the more fat that they carry at the time of pur- 
chase the less the quantity to be added thereto, and the 
less the expense in completing the fattening. 

Quarters suitable for feeding — The quarters suitable 
for feeding sheep are much dependent on the climate. The 
kind and character of the precipitation exercise a more 
potent influence on the quarters that should be provided 
than the degree of the precipitation. In some climates 
shelter is not really called for other than protection from 
winds. In others it should be so accessible that the sheep 
could be put under cover on very short notice. The quar- 
ters provided for sheep should always protect from falling 
storms that are hurtful, strong winds and also from 
drafts, and they should furnish a bed free from damp- 
ness. 

In northern areas it is usually if not in all instances 
necessary to have a shed or stable in which the sheep may 
be protected from adverse precipitation and a yard at- 
tached to which they have the freest access, save in time 
of storms. Under such conditions reasonably warm 
quarters are not detrimental when the doors are kept 
open giving access to the yards. Dry, well-lighted and 
airy basements are not objectionable where those condi- 
tions are observed, but it would be disastrous to a flock 
to confine them in quarters overwarm. If fattened in a 
shed it should be possible to close it against storms that 



208 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

drift and swirl. The yard should be on the sunny side 
and should have the protection of a high board fence or of 
stacks of straw on the exposed side, or sides. Of course, 
convenience in feeding and providing water should be 
given careful attention. When sheep thus fed are shorn, 
the quarters in which they are kept must be warm enough 
to meet their needs. 

In areas reasonably mild and dry, the protection of 
a shed even may not be necessary. But the cover of a 
grove or the protection of a bluff is always advantageous 
in shielding the sheep on feed from the wind. In many 
of the western mountain valleys sheep are thus fattened, 
and even as far north as Montana. In some instances no 
other protection is afforded than that of a fence surround- 
ing the inclosure. The temperature is seldom too low 
for the wellbeing of sheep on such food, the days of sun- 
shine are almost continuous and the storms accompanied 
by precipitation are light. Even as far north as Minne- 
sota sheep have been fattened with reasonable success 
with no other shelter than that of a bluff and a grove such 
as grows in the ravines of the prairie. 

In areas mild and moist the protection of a shed or 
covering of some kind is, in a sense, necessary to shield 
the sheep from rain and from snow or sleet should these 
occur. In some instances sheds devoted to other uses 
during a part of the year may be used for feeding sheep 
in winter. Sheds, for instance, in which tobacco is cured, 
are sometimes thus used for protecting sheep that are be- 
ing fattened at that season. 

Leading sheep up to full feeding — When sheep are 
first put upon a fattening ration, much caution should be 
exercised with reference to the amount of grain fed and 
the rate of increase in the feeding of the same. If the 
food is too stimulating in character or excessive in quan- 
tity, derangement in the digestion will result that will 
greatly retard increase, if it does not lead to even more 
serious consequences. Time must be given to allow the 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 209 

digestive organs to accommodate themselves to the 
change in the diet when unused to grain. Such accommoda- 
tion properly attained will enable sheep to digest with 
safety and profit after a time several times as much grain 
as it would be safe to give to them at the first. Nor can 
the system appropriate to itself the nutrients furnished in 
heavy grain feeding with as much advantage when feed- 
ing begins as at a later period. The lower the condition 
of the animals, when feeding begins, the less power have 
they to utilize such foods to the best advantage. When 
the animals, whether lambs or sheep, are capable of tak- 
ing maximum amounts of grain, they are said to be on 
"full feed." 

Ordinarily the grain fed until the sheep are on full 
feed should be nitrogenous in character, but decreasingly 
so as full feeding is approached. Much depends, how- 
ever, on the nature of the fodder fed. When the rough- 
age fed consists largely of clover or alfalfa hay, corn and 
bran without other admixture may be fed when other 
grain food is more costly. The proportion of bran at the 
first should be large, but not so large as to hinder the 
sheep from eating it with a relish, and it should decrease 
as the feeding advances. But for such preliminary feed- 
ing it will always be found helpful to add oats to the 
grain fed. at least for a time. When the roughage con- 
sists of ordinary hay. there is no better or safer food for 
preliminary feeding than oats and bran fed in equal pro- 
portions by bulk. Other kinds of grain will answer, but 
none is quite so safe or so satisfactory in every way as 
oats ; hence when the price of oats is such as to preclude 
their use when the sheep are on full feed, it may, never- 
theless, be found profitable to feed them to some extent 
when the fattening process begins. When bran is not 
obtainable, if five to lo per cent of oilcake be added to 
the grain, it will be found helpful. Where any consider- 
able quantity of field roots is fed, it may not be neces- 
sary to feed either bran or oilcake. When screenings are 



210 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

the sole fattening food, the only caution to observe is 
not to increase too rapidly the quantity fed. 

The amount to feed at the first will depend on the 
character of the food previously eaten. When sheep or 
lambs put on feed have never tasted grain previously, 
which is sometimes the case with sheep grown on western 
ranges, the quantity of grain fed at the first should be 
very small, less probably than one-fourth of a pound per 
animal daily. If previously well used to grain, the amount 
fed may be larger, and it may be increased more rapidly 
than with the former. With lambs that have been re- 
ceiving a somewhat liberal grain ration from the period 
of weaning on to the fattening season, full feeding may be 
attained in a very short period ; in fact, it may also 
begin with the beginning of the fattening season. For 
the amount of grain that constitutes full feeding, see 
page 2 ID. 

From what has been said it will be very evident that 
the time required to get sheep that are being fattened on 
full feed will vary greatly. With foods rich in nitrogen 
a less period is required than with foods rich in carbo- 
hydrates. The less concentrated also the grain fed, the 
shorter the period required to reach full feeding. But 
the less that the sheep have been used to grain feeding, 
the longer the time called for to reach this period. It 
would seem correct to say that in no case should more 
than four weeks be necessary for such feeding, and in 
but few instances can it be reached in one week. As the 
period advances the grain fed is gradually increased from 
day to day in quantity, and sometimes also in strength. 

When the grain feeding is crowded too fast, the first 
indications of the fact in the conduct of the sheep will be 
seen in the loss of appetite. The moment that such con- 
ditions manifest themselves, the animals thus afifected 
should be removed from the others and put on reduced 
rations. If such instances are at all numerous the quan- 
tity of the grain fed should be reduced until normal con- 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 211 

ditions prevail again. When a sheep is thus affected to 
the extent of refusing food altogether, its progress in fat- 
tening is much hindered, as considerable time must elapse 
before the digestive organs recover lost vigor, if, indeed, 
they ever recover it fully. 

Fodders that are suitable — The range of the fodders 
that may be fed to sheep that are being fattened is wide. 
Of the legumes, it includes clover in all its varieties^ 
alfalfa, cowpeas and vetches. Among the non-leguminous 
fodders it includes timothy and hay made from various 
other grasses, corn stover, corn fodder, sorghum and the 
nonsaccharine sorghums and straw of some of the small 
cereals. A mixture of pea and oat hay or of vetch and 
oat hay makes an excellent change. Millet hay given 
alone or with oats may also be used. 

Beyond question the legumes furnish the most val- 
uable fodders. Relative suitability in these is more a 
matter of palatability than of variety, and palatability is 
more dependent on fine growth and careful harvesting 
than on the kind of the legumes. Timothy and other 
grasses are not so highly relished as clovers, but if cut 
sufficiently early they will answer the purpose without 
admixture. The combination, however, with clover, 
when the fodder is of fine growth, furnishes a decided im- 
provement. The value of millet hay or of millet and oat 
hay is highest when harvested, as some of the millet heads 
assume a yellow tint. Corn stover furnishes a cheap fod- 
der, but is more suitable when shredded, as a larger pro- 
portion of it is then consumed. Corn fodder, if of fine 
growth, is decidedly superior to corn stover, and when 
of the character mentioned it is not necessary to shred it. 
The value of nonsaccharine sorghums for such feeding is 
also largely dependent upon their fineness. Whether it 
will pay to shred corn or the sorghums for such feeding- 
is still an unsettled question. The higher in price that fod- 
ders are the greater will be the gain from shredding. Corn 
fodder has the advantage usually of furnishing more or 



212 MANAGEMENT AND PEEDING OF SHEEP 

less grain, and the same is true of pea and oat and vetch 
and oat fodder cut at a proper stage of growth. Rye straw- 
is very low in value for such feeding. Wheat straw has 
more value, and barle}' and oat straw have a value still 
higher. 

Too much importance cannot be attached to the qual- 
ity of the fodder. When it has been grown and cured 
properly, shredding or chaffing are seldom either neces- 
sary or beneficial. Some waste will result from feeding 
coarse clover or corn stalks, and considerable waste will 
result from feeding straw, but sheep that are being fat- 
tened should not be forced to consume such food. When 
fodders are scarce and high, it is, of course, more impor- 
tant that they shall be eaten somewhat closely. 

The aim should be to feed fodders in racks as a rule. 
The exceptions are corn and sorghum fodders under some 
conditions of feeding. It is allowable sometimes to feed 
these by strewing them on frozen surfaces when the con- 
ditions are cleanly. Usually they are fed twice a day, 
that is, evening and morning, and the aim should be to 
clean out the residue, if any, in the racks before each feed 
is given. But when very large lots are fed, it may be, in 
a sense, necessary to keep a supply of fodder where it will 
be at all times accessible to the sheep, notwithstanding 
the considerable waste of such fodder, which thenceforth 
is only useful for bedding. When straw of the small 
cereals is fed, it should be in conjunction with other and 
better fodders. When corn or sorghum fodders are on 
hand, also hay from the grasses or clovers, and also straw 
from the small cereals, the foods mentioned first may be 
fed with most profit in the morning. Those mentioned 
second in the evening, and those mentioned third at noon. 
The most palatable fodder is thus reserved for the even- 
ing meal. Corn fodder has a higher feeding value in the 
autumn and early winter than later, and this is probably 
true of all the sorghum fodders ; hence the aim should be 
to save the best fodders as far as practicable for feeding 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 213 

during tbe advanced stage of tlie fattening process. Straw 
of the small cereals may in some instances furnish one of 
the two feeds given, but not for long periods of feeding. 
Some breeds of sheep, as the Merino, for instance, will 
consume such straw more readily than others. 

The amount of coarse fodder recjuired cannot be 
given with accuracy, as it will vary with the age of the 
sheep, the kind and quality of the fodder and the propor- 
tion of the concentrates fed, also the kind of the same. 
If the fodders are such that sheep will eat them with a 
relish until satisfied, they will consume about as much 
fodder as grain (see page 218). But usually there is some 
waste of fodder ; hence a greater weight of fodder is required 
than of concentrates. With the best of alfalfa or clover 
hay, it would be practicable to fatten sheep, when the 
weight of the hay to the grain is as two to one. 

Succulence that is suitable — The chief sources of 
succulence in providing food for sheep that are being fat- 
tened in winter are silage and field roots. Tubers may be 
used to some extent, but usually they are too costly for 
such feeding. Almost any kind of field roots will answer 
the purpose, but rutabagas and mangels are most in favor, 
largely for the reason that they are most cheaply grown. 
Sugar beets are sometimes used, but these are more com- 
monly fed in the form of pulp. Potatoes may be fed, but 
usually they are too valuable for such feeding. 

The value of silage in fattening sheep and lambs de- 
pends in a considerable degree upon the character of the 
silage and the conditions under which it is fed. It is 
claimed that lambs especially take more kindly to en- 
silage made from corn harvested at a somewhat more 
advanced stage of growth than is usual in harvesting 
corn intended for the silo. In other words, they prefer 
silage not over-succulent and probably for the reason that 
it is sweeter than other silage. In extremely cold weather 
some care is necessary with reference to the quantity fed, 
as the silage will freeze in a very short time in such 



214 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

weather, nor does it seem judicious under such conditions 
to encourage animals to fill the stomach with such food. 
Under no conditions should silage be fed to sheep when 
it is moldy or tainted with decay. Notwithstanding, the 
high value of silage cannot be questioned, taken in con- 
nection with its cheapness as a fattening food for sheep. 

Field roots are not much used in the United States 
in fattening sheep, for the reason chiefly that they are not 
much grown. Viewed from the standpoint of the cost of 
production, they are more costly to provide than corn 
silage. Notwithstanding, when field roots are judi- 
ciously fed, they tend to tone up the digestion, and thus to 
influence favorably the health of the animals that are be- 
ing fattened. The marked suitability of field roots for 
fattening sheep, apart from the question of cost, is indi- 
cated in the excellent results obtained from feeding when 
sheep are given large quantities of sugar beet pulp ; as 
with feeding silage, it is not wise to feed very large 
quantities of field roots during periods of prolonged and 
extreme cold. 

No fixed rule is followed in the order in which silage and 
roots are fed, or in the number of feeds given daily. In 
some instances these are fed once, in others twice. Some- 
times they are fed in the morning, at other times in the 
evening, and less frequently at noon. When large quan- 
tities are fed they are commonly fed both morning and 
evening. The silage is, of course, ready for feeding at all 
times. The roots should be prepared by slicing them or 
running them through a root pulper. 

The amounts that may be fed or that should be fed. will 
vary with the cost of growing or securing the silage or 
roots and with the nature of the other foods. More of 
both may be fed along with a heavy grain ration rather than 
with a light one, as the considerable bulk of the silage and 
roots get them so far for being the complement of the 
concentrates which have little bulk. It is not usual to 
feed more than three to five pounds of silage daily to 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 215 

sheep that are being fattened, but in some instances twice 
these amounts are fed. Two to three pounds daily are 
helpful, because of the influence of the succulence pres- 
ent, as well as of the nutrients in such food. Nor is it 
usual to feed more than four to five pounds of field roots 
daily, save when fed as beet pulp, but no hazard will re- 
sult from feeding quantities double those just mentioned. 
Under average conditions the greatest profit will doubt- 
less result from feeding small quantities of roots, not more 
probably than two to four pounds daily, because of the 
beneficent influence which these exercise on the diges- 
tion. They are a safeguard under heavy feeding of grain, 
and the heavier the feeding of the grain and the more 
concentrated it is, the more advantageous is such a safe- 
guard. 

Concentrates that are suitable — There is no kind of 
grain grown on this continent that may not be used in 
fattening sheep. These grains include corn, wheat, oats, 
barley, rye, speltz and Canada field peas in the North, 
sorghum seed both in the saccharine and non-saccharine 
varieties in the states further South, and cowpeas and soy 
beans in states where these may be successfully grown. 
There is also the by-product of certain cereals known as 
screenings. Of these corn will probably be used to a 
greater extent than any other concentrate, for the reason 
that it is more extensively grown than any other, and 
that it is relatively cheaper. Wheat has high adaptation 
for fattening sheep, as shown in many experiments, but 
the high price which it commands forbids feeding it thus. 
It is at least doubtful if wheat will ever again be fed in 
this way in any considerable quantities, unless it should 
be damaged, as by untimely frost. Oats are excellent 
fed alone or in combination with other foods, but usually 
the high price which they bring makes them a somewhat 
expensive grain food. What is said of oats will apply al- 
most equally to barley. The amount of rye grown rela- 
tively restricts its use. It is not wise to feed it as the sole 



2l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

grain feed for long periods, lest the digestion should be 
impaired, but it is an excellent food when properly com- 
bined with other grains. Spcltz has a feeding value not 
far below or different from barley. Canada field peas 
are excellent, but feeding them can only become general 
in areas south and west where they are plentifully grown. 
The sorghum seeds furnish a rich food and they may be 
fed in the head without being threshed out. While cow- 
peas and soy beans are excellent food for sheep when 
fattening, the market price puts them almost out of reach 
of the feeder in the meantime. Screenings are an ex- 
cellent and a safe food, as has been shown time and again 
in the experience of those who have fed sheep by the 
hundred and the thousand at the stockyards. 

Some of these foods will fatten sheep in reasonably 
good form when fed alone, especially when the roughage 
fed is of a character that will make the ration approxi- 
mately balanced. These include corn, oats, peas and 
screenings. Usually, however, better results will be ob- 
tained from feeding these in combination with some other 
food or foods. When more than two are combined, the 
foods are eaten with more of a relish than when a less 
number is fed. Some food when present in the grain 
ration will in nearly all instances add to their feeding 
value though present in limited quantity. Wheat bran 
is one of these, but it is less relished by sheep than some 
other foods and, therefore, should be fed only in moderate 
quantities. Oilcake is another, and though highly rel- 
ished, the price forbids feeding it heavily. These aid in 
maintaining health, more especially when the animals are 
subjected to high pressure feeding. Cottonseed meal may 
be fed instead of bran or oilcake, but when fed heavily 
it is not so safe a food as these. Oats also aid in keep- 
ing the digestion in tone. When oilcake cannot be had, 
a less amount of flaxseed will answer, though not quite 
so well, in its stead. 

When clover, alfalfa or other leguminous fodder is 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 21/ 

being fed, the following grain rations will be found suit- 
able after the sheep have been brought up to full feeding: 
Corn, sorghum seed, barley, wheat, oats or peas, with say 
five per cent of wheat bran or oilcake added, and in the 
case of corn and sorghum seed a larger per cent. When 
four to five pounds of roots are fed a day, the bran and 
oilcake may be dispensed with, but when these and roots 
also are included in the ration, the results will usually 
be even more favorable. At the Wyoming station, alfalfa, 
turnips and corn, alfalfa, turnips and barley, alfalfa, tur- 
nips, corn and flaxseed, were all found to make cheap 
gains, while alfalfa, turnips and flaxseed made the cheap- 
est gains that were realized. 

When the roughage is ordinary ha}'" and corn or 
sorghum fodders, the following may be used among the 
grain rations that will usually prove satisfactory in fat- 
tening sheep and lambs: (i) Corn or barley, bran and 
oilcake in the proportion of say 75, 15 and 10 per cent by 
weight. (2) Corn, barley, rye or sorghum seed ; oats ; 
bran and oilcake in the proportions of 50, 25 15 and 10 
per cent. (3) Corn, sorghum seed or rye; barley; oats; 
bran and oilcake in the proportions of 40, 20, 20, 15 and 
5 per cent. (4) Canada field peas and bran or Canada 
field peas and oilcake, in the proportions of 90 and 10 per 
cent in the first instance and 95 and 5 per cent in the 
second instance. (5) Peas; oats; bran and oilcake in the 
proportions of 50, 40, 5 and 5 per cent. (6) Oats and oil- 
cake in the proportions of 90 and 10 per cent respectively. 
(7) Wheat screenings fed alone or with almost any other 
kind of grain added. 

The following observations apply to the feeding of 
grain to sheep and lambs that are being fattened: (i) 
Gluten meal may be fed in lieu of corn meal or bran and 
in the same quantities as oilmeal. (2) When bran is fed 
rather than gluten or oilmeal, about twice the quantity 
should be fed. (3) When field roots are sufficiently plen- 
tiful, bran, oilcake and gluten meal may be dispensed 



2l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

with, but there is no objection to feeding them other than 
that which arises from cost. (4) Since corn is as a rule 
the cheapest grain food, the aim should be to make it 
form as large a part of the ration as is compatible with 
the requirements. (5) While oats furnish a reasonably 
good fattening food when fed alone, the ration is much 
improved by feeding corn freely along with the oats. (6) 
While the aim should be to feed the grains so as to bal- 
ance the fodders, because of the cheapness of some kinds 
of grain, it may be more profitable to feed them some- 
what out of balance. (7) The value of wheat screenings, 
one of the safest of foods, may vary from what is simply 
nominal in a concentrate to what is highest value in the 
same, according as they contain much or little grain. 

It is not necessary to grind the grain fed to sheep 
and lambs that are being fattened any more than it is to 
chaf¥ the coarse fodders for the same. They chew their 
food finely, hence the digestion is very complete. The 
only benefit from grinding screenings is that which arises 
from making it impossible for the sheep to scatter the 
weed seeds while eating them. They are usually fed 
unground. When the cobs are fed with the corn, of 
course both must be ground. It has not yet been shown 
that such grinding will prove profitable. 

The amount of food consumed by the sheep will vary 
with the age, size and breed of the sheep. Sheep more 
than one year old will consume more food than lambs, 
and they will also consume more in proportion to the differ- 
ence in the weights. It would seem safe to say that sheep 
beyond the age of one year will consume not less than 
33 per cent more food than lambs, the age at which thev 
are usually fattened. Such lambs when on full feed will 
consume about one and one-half to two pounds daily of 
grain, the amount, of course, varying with the degree of 
the concentration. About the same quantity of alfalfa or 
clover hay of high quality will be consumed, but a larger 
amount will be necessary, of course, when a part is re- 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 219 

jected because of coarseness or for other reasons. Lawes 
and Gibbert found that sheep consumed food approx- 
imately in proportion to their respective weights. It is 
probably true that breed exercises no other influence on 
food consumption than that which results from variation 
in size. 

The following- observations, general in character, ap- 
ply to the feeding of sheep on a finishing ration in winter : 
(i) The aim should be to have the feeding racks placed 
under cover except in climates dry and comparatively free 
from winter storms. The rack space for lambs should 
give from 8 to 12 inches to each lamb, and for older sheep 
proportionately more. (2) More commonly the food is 
given in two feeds daily — that is, morning and evening — 
and the aim should be to give the food after morning has 
dawned and before the darkness of night has come. The 
work of feeding is thus more expeditiously done, and the 
resting of the sheep is not thus disturbed. (3) Care 
should be taken to clean out all the food usually before 
giving other food. The remnant left, if any, may be used 
for bedding or fed to other stock, according to the quality. 
The influence on food consumption will be helpful. But, 
of course, when sheep are fed on the self-feeding plan 
such removal of rejected food is not entirely practicable. 
(4) Much care should be exercised in observing regular- 
ity in feeding. Sheep cannot be made to consume food 
exactly fitted to their needs when they are fed irregu- 
larly. (5) The aim should be to keep them as free as 
possible from disturbing influences. They are very timid, 
and unless accustomed to the presence of strangers, as 
when fed at experiment stations, such visitations, and in 
a greater degree the presence of dogs, will hinder their 
gains. (6) They should be given access to salt at all 
times, kept in boxes under cover, and in a condition free 
from incrustation. When given irregularly the animals 
will then drink too much water to make good increase. 
(7) Water must be plentifully supplied, and of good 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 221 

quality, if the sheep are to make the requisite gains. 
When large lots are fed, it may be taken from vessels 
supplied with floats to regulate the supply. To small 
lots it may be furnished in buckets or tubs in the sheds. 
Larger quantities of water will be consumed by sheep 
that are being fattened, especially in the absence of field 
roots or silage. It is quite practicable to feed field roots 
to the extent of rendering it unnecessary to furnish any 
water. (8) When fattening sheep and lambs in winter, 
no practical benefit bearing on increase results from 
shearing them before putting them on a fattening ration. 
This conclusion rests on the result of general experi- 
ments conducted by experiment stations, one of which 
was conducted by the author at the experiment station 
at Guelph, Ont., Canada. It was found, however, that 
lambs thus fattened reached the market of Great Britain 
in a form that was more attractive to the buyer than lambs 
not shorn when the fattening began. Prof. John A. Craig 
also found at the Wisconsin Station that shearing lambs 
not more than six months old was helpful in preparing 
them for autumn fattening, provided the shearing was 
done not later than early October. But when the fatten- 
ing of sheep or lambs is carried on into the springtime, 
the fattening will be more rapid if the fleece is removed 
as soon as the weather grows warm. 

Self-feeders and their place — Self-feeding of sheep 
means allowing them to take their food from boxes or 
racks, according to the kind of the food, whenever they 
want to eat from the same. The racks in which the hay 
is fed, and also the boxes in which the grain is fed, are so 
constructed that the food is continually accessible. In 
some instances the grain only is fed in self-feeders, the 
coarse fodder being supplied once or twice each day. 

Self-feeders for grain are simply oblong boxes with 
considerably more width at the top than the bottom. 
When exposed they have a roof to protect the grain. In 
this roof is a hinged lid, which extends along much or all 



222 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

of the roof, through which the grain is admitted to the 
boxes. Near the base of the sides is an opening running 
the entire length of the boxes, and through this opening 
the grain comes down into low troughs as fast as it is 
eaten by the sheep. Under the box supports are placed 
which raise it high enough from the ground to allow the 
sheep to eat the food with comfort. The hay racks used 
are in some instances of somewhat similar construction. 

Although self-feeders may sometimes be used with 
advantage on the ordinary farm, the wisdom of using 
them is to be questioned. The sheep, when taking food, 
leave more or less saliva on the uneaten grain in the box, 
which fact detracts somewhat from its palatability, 
resulting in a less consumption of the food. When the 
sheep have access at all times to the food, the appetite 
is less keen for taking food than when they take it at 
stated times and in a way that consumes the entire 
amount fed at each time of feeding. Experiments con- 
ducted have tended to show that such feeding is expen- 
sive, notwithstanding the saving in labor. They have 
also shown that with some kinds of food it is more diffi- 
cult to maintain the sheep in good health when thus fed. 
Such was the experience of the author in feeding lambs at 
the Minnesota station. Nevertheless, there is a place for 
self-feeders, as when sheep are fed in a wholesale way at 
the stock yards, and it may be at large feeding stations in 
the semi-range country. Where wheat screenings is the 
chief grain food fed, as it is usually at the stock yards, 
the use of self-feeders is more justifiable than elsewhere, 
as is shown below. 

All kinds of grain cannot be fed in self-feeders with 
equal advantage. The more concentrated and rich the 
grain food, the more hazard is there in feeding it thus. It 
would be disastrous to feed corn alone in self-feeders for 
any long-continued period, as the tax thus put upon the 
energies of the system in digesting quantities so large 
of such a food would result in derangement of the diges- 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 22^ 

tive organs, which in some instances would terminate 
fatally. Similar results would follow from feeding some 
other grain foods alone, but perhaps not quite so quickly. 
When rich concentrates are fed in self-feeders, they 
should be diluted, so to speak, by mixing with them other 
foods, such as wheat, bran, oats or wheat screenings. 
When the excess of concentration for such feeding of 
these foods alone is thus lowered sufficiently, it is possi- 
ble to feed any kind of grain, however rich, in self-feeders 
with reasonable safety. 

Fattening sheep on sugar beet pulp — Sheep and 
lambs are in some instances fattened in a large way in 
proximity to sugar beet factories. The principal food fed 
is sugar beet pulp ; but, of course, other adjuncts are fed 
more or less in conjunction with the pulp. The sheep are 
kept in yards. In mild areas, as, for instance the valleys 
of Colorado and other mountain states of a similar or 
lower latitude, sheds are not provided, but in areas with 
colder winters and frequent precipitation, as Michigan, 
sheds are necessary. In the middle areas referred to, the 
pulp is usually drawn from the pit or inclosure into which 
it is conveyed from the factory. It is drawn from day to 
day. In some instances it is fed in troughs. In other 
instances the feed of hay for the day is strewn along the 
fence that surrounds the yard. The pulp is thrown onto 
this hay from the wagons which convey it. The sheep 
eat the pulp, and thus the hay. by putting their heads 
through an opening between the fence boards that has 
been made for such a use. There is some waste from such 
feeding, but not so much as would be looked for by those 
unaccustomed to seeing it. When feeding small lots on 
the farm and more distant from the factories, it would be 
necessary when the winter climate is severe, to draw the 
pulp and put it in a silo before the season of hard freez- 
ing. From this it may. of course, be fed at will as desired. 

The pulp may be fed ever so freely to the sheep. It 
has been claimed that it is more valuable as a food than 



224 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

the beets, as any salts inimical to the needs of the sheep 
are washed out in the process of manufacturing the beets. 
The amount of feed will be influenced by the size of the 
sheep and by the respective amounts of hay and grain 
fed. As many as lo pounds per animal daily have been 
fed with advantage, but more commonly not more than 
five to six pounds are fed daily along with fodder and 
grain. It is entirely practicable to finish sheep and laml:)s 
on alfalfa hay and beet pulp, but a better finish is made 
when a small amount of grain is fed all the while, or a 
larger amount fed only toward the close of the feeding 
season. The pulp has high adaptation for feeding sheep 
so old that the teeth have begun to fail, as they are able 
to consume it without difficulty. 

Any kind of 'fodder may be fed with the pulp that is 
nutritious and palatable. In the western valleys alfalfa 
is commonl}^ fed along with beet pulp owing to its abun- 
dant growth in them. The alfalfa and pulp furnish a grand 
food for growing sheep and a very cheap food for finish- 
ing them, but the finish is not so satisfactory as when 
some grain is fed. Clover when it can be obtained is about 
equally satisfactory with alfalfa, but hay from the grasses 
or corn or sorghum fodder will suffice. 

Corn has peculiar adaptation for being fed along with 
sugar beet pulp and any leguminous fodder, as clover or 
alfalfa. Good results will be obtained from feeding one 
pound daily to lambs, but in some instances more is fed. 
The heavier feeding of corn is most important toward 
the close of the feeding period. Barley is also good, but 
other grains may be substituted for either corn or barley. 

The feeding of the pulp in the dry form to sheep or 
lambs that are being fattened has scarcely begun in 
America, but it may yet be extensively used for such fat- 
tening. 

Feeding sheep on western ranges — Sheep and lambs 
are frequently fattened in a large way in certain areas of 
at least some of the range states in proximity to lands 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 225 

usually irrigated which produce alfalfa in great abun- 
dance. In some instances they are fed somewhat similarly 
in states which border on the range country to the east. 
Many thousands are fattened simultaneously at some of 
these feeding stations. 

Usually the yards are so arranged that only half the 
number are occupied at one time. This arrangement is 
intended to furnish the opportunity to replenish the feed 
racks in the yards not occupied. In other instances the 
grain is fed in self-feeders, but the sheep are only allowed 
to eat for a limited time, when another lot is admitted. 
In many instances the yards are arranged on both sides 
of a driveway for convenience in feeding the hay. No 
shelter is provided other than what will ward off the 
wind. Salt is continually before them and water is always 
accessible. In each yard from 400 to 500 sheep are fed. 

In some instances the hay is fed on the ground on the 
two sides of the driveway. From day to day it is strewn 
along the fences. The sheep eat it by putting the head 
through a 7 or 8-inch space between the boards in the 
fence. In other instances it is fed in wide racks in the 
yards, as wide as, say, 12 to 18 feet. The 8-inch boards 
that form the sides of these racks run lengthwise, and the 
sheep take the hay through the openings between them. 
As the hay is eaten it is pushed forward. In yet other 
instances the stacks are placed close up to the outer fence, 
and as it is eaten it also is pushed forward. 

More commonly the grain is fed in limited supply. 
The necessity for feeding it thus arises from the fact that 
usually corn is fed with sometimes a small percentage of 
oilcake in it. Unlimited access to such food would be 
attended with hazard. It is fed at first in small quantities, 
and in few instances does the amount fed exceed one and 
one-half pounds each day for mature sheep when on full feed. 

As the food is all dry, large amounts of water are 
consumed, which is usually pumped up fresh by wind- 
mills from day to day. When fattening sheep and lambs 



226 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

thus, the aim is to keep down the outlay for labor to a 
minimum, as such labor is relatively costly in the far 
West. Such a system of feeding is more or less wasteful 
of hay, and the manure resulting is not always used to the 
best advantage because of the expense of applying it. 

Fattening sheep on screenings — The feeding of 
screenings has already been touched upon (see page 218). 
Screenings may be obtained from any kind of grain that 
calls for winnowing. In the merchantable sense they are 
obtained by the screening of grain at elevators, in which 
it is sent directly from the threshing machine. In addi- 
tion to small and shrunken grain and broken kernels, the 
screenings contain the seeds of all kinds of weeds that 
have grown in the crops. Sheep are very fond of these, 
partly for the reason that they are fond of variety, and 
the nutritive properties are such that sheep usually fatten 
satisfactorily on such food. Screenings furnish one of the 
most healthful of fattening foods, but in some instances 
wild mustard seeds are present to the extent of being 
prejudicial to the health of the sheep, because of their 
over-stimulating character. Screenings largely composed 
of shrunken grains of wheat are about as valuable for 
feeding sheep as good wheat. On the other hand screen- 
ings may contain so much broken straw and so little nutri- 
ment as to be of little value in feeding sheep, unless corn 
or some other rich grain food is mixed in with them or is 
fed as supplemental to them. 

Screenings are usually fed only at the stock yards, 
where sheep and lambs are fed in sheds in a wholesale 
way, or at certain other feeding centers, where they are 
similarly fed. They are so fed because they are sent 
away from the farm when the grain is sold. In order to 
feed them on farms, the farmer would have to buy what 
he or some of his neighbors previously gave away, and in 
addition would have to pay the cost of transit. Hay is 
fed in addition to the screenings, but the main dependence 
is on screenings. 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 227 

As has been intimated, screenings are in nearl}'- all 
instances fed in self-feeders, and for such feeding they are 
one of the safest of foods. Notwithstanding, even screen- 
ings will give better results, viewed apart from the cost 
of feeding, when fed only in such quantities as will be 
eaten clean by the sheep. 

Viewed from the standpoint of the farm and its needs, 
it would be much wiser to clean the grain and keep the 
screenings for feeding on the farm. Because of this it is 
not too much to expect that the day is not distant when 
the farmer will cease to give away his screenings and will 
feed them at home. That he does give them away is 
certain, as on every bushel of grain sent to the elevator 
there is a certain amount of dockage because of the pres- 
ence of screenings. In addition to the cost of the screen- 
ings for feeding on the farm is the loss of the fertility 
that would have resulted from feeding them. 

Fattening two lots in succession — It is quite prac- 
ticable to fatten two lots of sheep in succession during the 
same winter. When this can be done the profit should be 
greater than when one lot only is fattened, other things 
being equal, as it results in the more complete utilization 
of the plant. Such feeding may be conducted, not only 
on the farm, but also at feeding plants established else- 
where. The chief obstacle to be overcome in relation to 
such feeding is the greater difficulty found in obtaining 
the sheep or lambs for feeding at the season when it is 
usual to put the second lot on feed. Such feeding is made 
possible by the comparatively short season called for to 
make sheep ready for the market. 

The first lot is put on feed when cool weather is ap- 
proaching, say about November i. In three months they 
will usually be ready for the market. They are then sold 
at a season when prices for mutton are relatively good ; 
that is, in February. If put on feed much earlier they 
would be ready to market at the holiday season or dur- 



228 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ing the period of comparative slack demand for meat im- 
mediately following that season. 

The feeding of the second lot may begin immediately 
after the sale of the first lot. When put on foods for fat- 
tening, say not later than the middle of February, they 
will be ready for market not later than May 15. If they 
can be put upon a finishing ration at the beginning of 
February, then they may be sold early in May, a month 
during which good prices usually prevail for such meat, 
as grass-finished animals have not yet reached the market. 
But they should be shorn without fail when the weather 
begins to get warm. 

Where such feeding can be conducted, especially on the 
arable farm, the benefit therefrom will be apparent. In addi- 
tion to any direct profit that may result, the fertilizer pro- 
duced is doubled, which is a matter of great importance 
to the feeder whose lands call for additional fertilizer. It 
would even be practicable to finish three lots of sheep 
within the year on the same farm, and the first lot in such 
instances would be finished on grazing such as rape, and 
marketed not later than November i. 

Hazard to breeding flocks — The fattening of sheep 
and lambs on the arable farm, when the supplies for fat- 
tening are purchased is attended with no little hazard to 
the breeding flock when one is kept upon the same farm. 
Such hazard consists in the possible, if not indeed proba- 
ble, introduction of parasites, such as tape and stomach 
worms. Where the feeders are purchased it is impossi- 
ble to know whether these and certain other parasites are 
present or not. The presence of such insects as scab 
mites and ticks may usually be discovered at the time of 
purchase, and by making proper use of dipping tanks 
their introduction to the farms may be prevented. If 
purchased at the stockyards the dipping may most con- 
veniently be done at the stockyards, but if purchased else- 
where it must be done on the farm. To make sure that 
all the insects will be destroyed when scab is present, two 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 229 

dippings should be given. Since the presence of internal 
parasites cannot usually be known when sheep are pur- 
chased, when brought to farms for fattening they should 
not be allowed access either to the pastures on which the 
breeding flocks graze, or the pens in which they are con- 
fined. Although the life history of these parasites is not 
fully known, experience has abundantly proved that 
breeding flocks may be infected through the introduction 
of sheep for fattening. The danger would seem to be 
greatest when sheep thus introduced are given access to 
the pastures on which the breeding flocks graze. If the 
sheep introduced can be confined to sheds and yards to 
which the breeding flocks have no access, the hazard in- 
curred is reduced to a minimum. 

Because of the hazard of introducing parasitical dis- 
eases, it is at least questionable if sheep should be brought 
in to be fattened on the same farm on which a breeding 
flock is kept. Where practicable it would seem better to 
increase the breeding flock to the full capacity of the farm, 
and to fatten on it only such supplies as the farm was 
thus able to furnish. The importance of keeping breed- 
ing flocks of sheep free from parasites cannot be over- 
estimated. Nor should it be forgotten that the danger of 
introducing parasites with sheep purchased on other 
farms is as great as when they are purchased at the stock- 
yards. 

Sheep fattened only on the farm — It is unfortunate in 
several respects that all the sheep and lambs that are fat- 
tened are not finished on the farm. The benefits from 
such feeding include the following: (i) The percentage 
of loss from feeding in such lots is less than in those that 
are large ; (2) roughage is utilized that may otherwise 
be wasted ; (3) the fertilizer is turned to good account ; 
and (4) the farmer is given work that should bring a 
profitable return at a time when other work is not press- 
ing. 

The percentage of loss with sheep fed in small lots 



230 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

is less than with sheep fed in large lots, for reasons very 
similar to those which explain the greater loss in breed- 
ing flocks of large size as compared with those of small 
size. These include: (i) The less favorable sanitary 
conditions where large lots are kept, from the less pure 
character of the air; (2) the less favorable opportunity for 
each to get its rightful share of the food ; and (3) the 
greater opportunity furnished for communicating any 
communicable form of ailments that may invade the flock. 
These cases, however, are much less with the hardy 
Merinos than with the mutton breeds, especially with 
those of large size. 

On every farm there is a certain amount of roughage 
that may be turned to good account where live stock is 
kept or fed, which would not be so used but for the pres- 
ence of the same. Such fodders include corn stalks, bean 
and pea straw, and the straw of various cereals. These, 
of course, may be utilized by other kinds of stock, as 
horses or cattle, if present; but on many farms it may 
not be desirable to keep these in numbers that will con- 
sume all the rough fodders grown. Such is the case fre- 
quently on what are termed grain farms. Where sheep 
are fed in large lots, both the fodders and the grain fed 
to them in fattening are taken from the farm, and the 
resultant fertilizer seldom comes back again to the farm 
from which it was taken. 

The waste of fertilizer when sheep are kept in large 
lots is usually very great. At many feeding stations but 
little use has been made of it in the past. In some in- 
stances in the West it has been loaded on to flat cars at 
the stockyards, drawn to some ravine or gully and then 
thrown off the cars into it as the easiest way of disposing 
of it. At feeding stations in the mountain states the 
waste of manure is also frequently very great. More care, 
however, is now being taken of this precious commodity 
than in former years. When the sheep are fed on the 
farm, all the fertilizer made may be readily applied and 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 23I 

in a way that may be attended with but little loss of its 
useful properties. 

When sheep are fattened on the farm in winter, the 
feed fed to them should result in more profit to the farmer 
than if the same were disposed of by selling- it directly. 
In this way the door is opened for increasing the revenue 
of the farm through work done at a season when work 
is usually not pressing. The advantage from increasing 
revenue at such a time will be so apparent that it need 
not be dwelt upon. 

Duration of the fattening period — The duration of 
the fattening period will depend measurably on the fol- 
lowing considerations, along with some others that may 
be named: (i) The relative amount of protein and car- 
bohydrates respectively in the ration ; (2) the degree of 
the concentration in the ration ; (3) the way in which the 
food is fed ; (4) the nature of the market ; and (5) the con- 
dition of the animals when put on feed. The more protein 
and the less carbohydrates in the ration, the longer the 
period that is called for in which to finish the sheep, and 
vice versa. Foods that are highly concentrated, like corn, 
cannot be fed safely for so long a period as foods less 
concentrated and more bulky, like oats and field roots. 
Sheep or lambs cannot be fed for so long a period when 
the food is fed in self-feeders as when fed only up to the 
capacity of the animals to consume it from time to time 
with a relish. Some markets call for sheep with a some- 
what less degree of finish than others ; hence it is not 
necessary to feed them for so long a period for the former. 
That sheep low in flesh when put on feed will take a 
longer time to fatten than those high in flesh is only self- 
evident. This factor alone may make a difference of sev- 
eral weeks in the time called for in reaching a high degree 
of finish. In but few instances are sheep or lambs fin- 
ished in less than 60 days, and they can only be finished 
thus quickly when they are in good condition as to flesh 
when the feeding begins. On the other hand the feeding 



232 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

is seldom prolonged for more than 120 days. More com- 
monly it covers a period of about 90 days. Lambs call 
for a somewhat longer period to reach high flesh than 
more mature sheep as they make muscle in a greater de- 
gree than the latter. 

When sheep and lambs are fattened within a short 
time, concentrates rich in the elements of nutrition must 
be fed. For such feeding no grain has higher adaptation 
than corn. Finishing within short periods is attended 
with more hazard than when feeding is more prolonged. 
The mortality attending such feeding is usually greater 
than when the period of feeding is more extended. 

The fattening of sheep and lambs may be prolonged 
in two ways. By the first the quantity of protein fed is 
large, relatively, and by the second, while the concentrate 
fed is chiefly carbonaceous, it is not fed up to the limit 
of the capacity of the animals to consume it. While feed- 
ing in the latter sense may be more costly in the amount 
of food consumed to produce the necessar}' finish, the less 
relative loss may more than compensate for the extra food 
used. 

With rare exceptions, the aim should be to reach a 
high finish in the animals fed. The exceptions include such 
times as when home-grown food supplies are short and 
the cost of purchased foods is high, and when an early 
winter brings fattening on the pastures to an abrupt close 
under conditions which preclude the continuance of the 
fattening process in sheds. High finish and top market 
prices are almost invariably associated. An advance of 
even a fraction of a cent a pound will make considerable 
difference in the profits. 

Increase from sheep while fattening — Prominent 
among the conditions that afifect increase are breeding, 
individuality, age. and food. It is true that breed influ- 
ences gains, but to a less degree than individuality in the 
animals that are being fattened. Sheep, for instance, that 
have been developed largely for the wool produced, as the 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 233 

Merino types, do not usually make gains quite equal to 
those of the distinct mutton breeds. Likewise less in- 
crease is to be expected from culls than from sheep pos- 
sessed of good form and robust individuality. Lambs will 
usually make larger increase than sheep that are older, 
and the relative increase grows less with advancing age. 
A ration well furnished with protein will usually be at- 
tended with largest increase during the early stages of 
fattening, but more of carbohydrates are wanted during 
the more advanced stages to make rapid increase. 

The normal increase will vary, of course, with the 
conditions just pointed out. Moderate increase in lambs 
on feed will approximate 7^ pounds per month ; good in- 
crease, 10 pounds ; and excellent increase, 12 pounds. The 
normal increase from wethers and other mature sheep will 
probably approximate 20 to 25 per cent less. 

The source of the profit from fattening sheep is sel- 
dom found in the increase made while they are being thus 
fattened. It comes from the enhanced value of each 
pound of the live weight possessed when the fattening 
process began. The market values of food are such that 
in nearly all instances a pound of increase made costs 
more in the food used in making it than it will sell for in 
the market, and yet the advance in value of each pound 
of the original weight may be such as to result in sub- 
stantial profits. 

Profit in fattening in winter — The real source of the 
profit has just been pointed out, and yet other factors 
have an important influence in determining what the de- 
gree of the profit shall be, if any. Chief among these are 
the prices paid for the animals purchased, if purchased, 
and received for them when marketed, the weight when 
put on feed, the relative increase made and the cost of the 
food fed. From what has been said it will be apparent 
that in order to make any profit on the animals fed, there 
must be some increase in the selling over the buying 
price. 



234 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

To make a very moderate profit, experience has 
shown that with concentrates at one cent a pound the 
selling price should exceed the buying price by not less 
than one cent per pound live weight. To make a good 
profit the former should exceed the latter by not less than 
1 1/2 cents per pound. 

The marked influence of the weights of the animals 
at the time of purchase will be readily apparent. Thus 
if one animal purchased and put on feed weighs lOO 
pounds at the time of purchase and increases in value one 
cent per pound because of the fattening, and if another 
animal weighs but 60 pounds under similar conditions of 
purchase and sale, the increase in the value of the former 
at the time of purchase will be 40 cents more than that of 
the latter. At first thought it would seem more profitable 
to purchase large rather than small animals to put on 
feed, but in practice in very many instances this does not 
hold true, owing to the bearing of other influences 
affected by size and age, as the purchase and sale prices, 
rate of increase and cost of the same. 

The bearing of the rate of increase and the cost of 
food are so apparent as not to call for prolonged dis- 
cussion. Rapid increase adds to profit by its actual value, 
by reducing the cost of maintenance and by the salutary 
influence which it exercises on condition. When the cost 
of concentrates exceeds one cent per pound and the selling 
price of the finished product is not more than 5 to 6 cents 
per pound live weight, careful feeding is necessary to in- 
sure much profit. 

The relative profit from feeding lambs and wethers 
or other sheep more mature than lambs will vary with 
conditions such as relate to purchase and sale, also to the 
value of food. The comparison may be stated thus: 
Lambs usually cost more per pound when purchased, 
make more increase and at less cost and are sold at an 
advance in price greater, as a rule, than that obtained 
for other sheep ; hence the margin of profit on lambs is in 



FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 235 

many instances greater than the same from more mature 
sheep. Nevertheless, because of the greater weight of 
the more mature sheep at the time of purchase, the ad- 
vance in value on this weight may in some instances bring 
a larger margin of profit from these. When the sheep 
are grown on the farm, the margin of profit from fatten- 
ing will be the larger, as they consume from, say, 20 to 30 
per cent less food for the increase made. Lambs will call 
for approximately 500 pounds of grain and 400 pounds of 
hay to make 100 pounds of increase. The risk from loss 
during the feeding is also less with lambs. 

Usually the finishing of aged ewes in winter is the 
most undesirable kind of fattening in relation to sheep, as 
they feed slowly, make increase at enhanced cost as com- 
pared with other sheep, are fed at greater hazard and are 
slower of sale. But in some instances the fattening of 
these may fetch a good margin of profit, as when they 
may be purchased cheaply and fattened at low cost. 

General observations on fattening — -i. The fattening 
process in its relation to the carcass proceeds in outline 
as follows : The formation of fat begins internally by 
creating the web that covers the intestines. It then be- 
comes manifest at the tailhead, from which it extends for- 
ward on both sides of the spine to the neck. It is then 
deposited in the muscles. The kidneys become entirely 
covered, the muscular tissue becomes marbled, the tail 
becomes thick and stift', the top of the neck broad, and 
the cod or udder filled. But the formation of fat is by no 
means uniform in sheep. One will lay on the largest pro- 
portions of fat on the rump and parts adjacent thereto ; 
a second on the back ; a third on the parts adjoining the 
forequarter, as the neck, breast and brisket ; a fourth on 
those pertaining to the hindquarter, as the kidney and 
flank ; and a fifth on the internal organs generally. 

2. The prominent indications of ripeness in the car- 
cass are: Stififness and thickness at the root of the tail; 
a good covering of flesh on the loin and back generally, 



236 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

much width of the neck above and fulhiess of the breast 
below, and thickness of the flank front and rear. If fat 
is lacking at the tailhead, it will not be found elsewhere. 
If abundantly present at the flanks and cod, it is not likely 
to be lacking elsewhere. That degree of fatness should 
not be sought that will lead to the rejection of a large 
amount of fat when trimming the carcass. 

3. The rations for fattening should be fed in approxi- 
mate balance as a rule. In these protein foods should be 
used with much freedom, especially with lambs, but it 
would be easily possible to feed them so freely as to re- 
sult in protein waste. In some instances, however, it may 
be profitable to feed protein in excess, and in other in- 
stances carbohydrates, because of the difference in the 
relative value of these. 

4. The shrinkage in fat sheep and lambs in transit 
will vary with the foods used in fattening, with the degree 
of the finish and with the time occupied in reaching the 
market. The more succulent the foods used in finishing, 
the longer relatively will be the shrinkage, and I'icc versa. 
Well-finished sheep will usually shrink less than those of 
lower finish. The longer the animals are in transit the 
more, of course, will they shrink. When not more than 
one to two days are occupied in transit, the shrinkage 
should not be more than, say, four to five pounds for ani- 
mals averaging 100 pounds live weight. In journeys on 
the cars covering 1,000 miles approximately, shrinkage to 
the extent of nine to 10 per cent has been reported. 

5. There is not a consensus of opinion as to the cause 
of what is termed "sheepy flavor" in mutton, nor is it 
easy to express in words what is meant by the term. It 
is that flavor sometimes found in mutton which reminds 
those who have come in contact with sheep of the pres- 
ence of the living animal. The common opinion that it 
is caused by careless dressing, as the wool coming in con- 
tact with the flesh, is not tenable, as the flavor is some- 
times found in sheep that have been carefully dressed. It 



FATTEXING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 2'>^'J 

is doubtless caused by the way that the animals have been 
fed and by the condition at the time of slaughter. If the 
sheep are not improving, but rather losing flesh at the 
time of slaughter, the less active conditions of the ex- 
cretory organs removes less perfectly from the system all 
the waste products. This view finds countenance in the 
fact that the flavor referred to is not present in mutton 
well fed and well finished. 



CHAPTER XII 

MILK LAMBS AND HOW TO OBTAIN, GROW 
AND MARKET THEM 

Chapter XII considers the following phases of this 
question: (i) What is meant by a milk lamb; (2) The 
essentials in a milk lamb ; (3) How to obtain milk lambs ; 
(4) How to change the breeding habit in ewes ; (5) Expe- 
rience at the Minnesota station ; (6) Milk lambs other 
than from Dorset sires ; (7) Where milk lambs should be 
grown ; (8) The quarters suitable for milk lambs ; (9) 
Care and food for the dams; (10) Care and food for the 
lambs; (11) Marketing the lambs; (12) Management of 
the dams when the lambs are sold; (13) Disposing of the 
dams to be sold; (14) Growing milk lambs chiefly from 
grazing; and (15) The room for the industry. 

What is meant by a milk lamb — In the strictest sense 
a milk lamb is one that is sent to the market while yet 
unweaned. Any lamb, therefore, that is sold prior to the 
weaning season could with propriety be termed a milk 
lamb, even though it should have reached the age of 18 
to 20 weeks. But that is not the sense in which the 
term is usually understood. Strictly speaking, a milk 
lamb is a lamb that is dropped in the late autumn or early 
winter and that is pushed forward by forced feeding and 
sold at an age usually not more than 10 weeks from the 
date of birth. They are frequently called winter lambs, 
from the season during which they are usually grown. 
They are also known as hothouse lambs from the forcing 
and pampering to which they are subjected. The milk 
lamb industry, though of long standing in Great Britain, 
is of comparatively recent introduction into the United 
States. The sale of such lambs as happened to come 
early when not more than two to three months old has 



MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 239 

been commonly practiced for many years, but the sys- 
tematic breeding of winter lambs does not go back much 
beyond two decades. The industry has almost entirely 
grown up since 1890. But few flocks of Dorsets were 
owned in the United States at the date mentioned. The 
very considerable distribution of Dorsets since that time 
has tended much to the advancement of the milk lamb 
industry. 

Essentials in a milk lamb — With reference to growth 
in a milk lamb, it must be rapid; otherwise it will not 
possess the requisite tenderness called for in such lambs, 
nor would it reach the market at the proper season except 
when born at an early period for winter lambs. With 
reference to condition, it must be fat and plump ; other- 
wise it will not grade sufficiently high to command the 
good prices usually paid for good winter lambs. With 
reference to form, it should possess good mutton requi- 
sites with correct form. The breed or grade is not greatly 
important. It may, however, have some significance, as 
miniature horns in Dorset lambs have to some extent 
become recognized as a mark of a true milk lamb. With 
reference to weight, it should seldom exceed 45 pounds 
and should seldom fall below 35 pounds. Providing the 
lambs have sufficient weight and plumpness, the age will 
not be inquired into, but the growth made must be made 
rapidly, or the lambs will not be possessed of sufficient 
plumpness to meet the needs of the market at the weights 
that are most desirable. These lambs should reach the 
market while under the age of, say, 10 weeks. 

The time for marketing milk lambs is supremely im- 
portant in its relation to the business. The best time to 
market them is subsequently to the holiday season at the 
end of the year and before the Easter season. Before the 
holiday season the lambs are not much sought for, be- 
cause of the extent to which poultry is used. Subse- 
quently to the Easter period they would reach the mar- 
ket in competition with early lambs not specially grown 



240 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 



as milk lambs. The competition from the poultry in the 
one instance and the early lamb in the other would tell 
adversely on prices. Milk lambs should not be dropped, 
therefore, much earlier than December nor much later 
than February. The high price, relatively, paid for milk 
lambs is the justification for breeding them. 




FIG. 12— TYPICAL DORSET HORN RAM 

The property of the Minnesota Experiment Station 

(Courtesy of owner) 

How to obtain milk lambs— Milk lambs can only be 
obtained from a limited number of the pure breeds. The 
Dorset and Tunis breeds are the only pure breeds from 
which milk lambs are obtained in America in any consid- 
erable numbers. The other pure breeds usually drop 
their lambs too late to admit of growing them as winter 
lambs. Merinos, in many instances, will produce lambs 
early in the season if allowed to, but the habit of breed- 
ing so as to produce lambs in the early winter is not en- 



MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 241 

grafted on them as it is on the other breeds named. 
Among the Down breeds Hampshires are probably the 
most suitable. But milk lambs may also be obtained 
from grades, though not until the breeding habit in these 
has been so modified that they will with reasonable cer- 
tainty produce lambs at the desired season. Such lambs 
may be thus obtained from grades possessed of various 
blood elements, but not until the breeding habit is modi- 
fied by some such method as that pointed out below, 
when discussing changing the breeding habit. 

The material from which milk lambs may be obtained 
is not plentiful as yet. Pure Dorsets and pure Tunis 
sheep are too valuable to grow milk lambs from them. 
The attempts to modify the breeding habit in grades are 
recent and by no means general. As a result, the material 
from this source for breeding winter lambs is not plenti- 
ful. But it is from this source that growers of pure bred 
lambs will chiefly obtain the ewes that will furnish the 
lambs. 

How to change the breeding habit — The tendency in 
nearly all breeds of sheep is to drop their lambs in the 
spring rather than in the autumn or winter. This tend- 
ency or breeding habit may be so modified that ewes 
will produce lambs at any season that may be desired ; 
one or two methods may be chosen to effect such change. 
By the first it is brought about by selection, by the sec- 
ond through breeding and selection. The second method 
will reach the desired end much more quickly than the first. 

When the breeding habit is changed by selection, the 
ewes that breed early are retained for such breeding. The 
progeny of these are also saved for further breeding. 
When the flock is well sustained by nourishing food, the 
tendency to breed still earlier is encouraged. In time, 
therefore, the habit in breeding may be changed from 
one season to another. This method of securing change, 
however, is too slow in itself to meet the needs of the 
srrowers of milk lambs. 



242 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

When the breeding habit is changed by breeding and 
selection combined, the change is affected in great part by 
the sires chosen. The females set aside for such breed- 
ing may be much mixed in their blood elements. In 
selecting them the character of the inheritance need not 
give much concern. Evidence of Merino inheritance 
should be regarded with favor, as it will, when present, 
facilitate to some extent quick change in the breeding 
habit. Some attention should be given to size and form 
when selecting them. They should approximate what is 
considered good mutton form and should have reasonably 
good size. Moreover, they should have that roominess 
of body and refinement of head, neck and limb that indi- 
cate capacity to milk freely. 

Ewes thus chosen should be mated with rams chosen 
from the Dorset or Tunis breeds. The mating should be 
as early in the season as the ewes will take service, and it 
may to some extent be hastened by giving the ewes nour- 
ishing and succulent food. A certain proportion of lambs 
will thus be obtained considerably earlier than such ewes 
have been accustomed to breed, but not early enough, it 
may be, to serve as milk lambs. The females that are 
born thus early should be reserved for further breeding. 
They should in due time be mated with a ram of the same 
breed. If well sustained, a considerable proportion of 
these will drop lambs in the early winter. The males 
may be pushed forward and sold as milk lambs, but the 
females should be retained for future breeding. If well 
sustained, a very large proportion of these ewes — that is, 
ewes of the second cross — will produce winter lambs. 
With ewes of the third generation of such breeding, the 
habit of producing winter lambs at the desired season 
may be looked upon as practically established. The ewes 
that do not show much advance in the time of breeding 
can, of course, be discarded, but in well-managed flocks 
it will be found that few of these will fail to breed much 
earlier than the usual season for breeding. 



MILK LAMBS : HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 243 

Food plays an important part in hastening or retard- 
ing change in the breeding habit. When the ewes that 
have produced early lambs are well sustained with nour- 
ishing and succulent food during the nursing period, they 
will frequently mate soon after the lambs have been 
weaned ; hence after the change in the breeding habit has 
been established, the ewes will sometimes mate so as to 
produce lambs earlier than is desirable if allowed to do so. 
When the lambs are sold several weeks before the time 
for grazing begins, the ewes will mate more readily be- 
fore being turned out to graze than for some time sub- 
sequently, owing probably to the temporary reduction in 
flesh which usually follows the beginning of the grazing 
period. To insure mating sufficiently early, the grazing 
should be nutritious, and along with it some supplemental 
grain may be helpful in securing sufiiciently early breeding. 

Experience in Minnesota — To throw light upon this 
question, the author instigated a series of experiments at 
the Minnesota station several years ago. The ewes 
selected for the purpose were of the commonest types 
that could be secured. A considerable proportion were 
ewes from the range, such as are exposed for sale from 
time to time in the stockyards. The blood elements pos- 
sessed by them were various. Judging by the indications, 
the blood elements of the Southdown, Shropshire, Oxford 
Down and Cotswold breeds were more or less present, 
and the evidences of Merino blood were pronounced in 
nearly all of them. In some instances they carried folds 
and even wrinkles. 

The males used were pure Dorsets possessed of good 
mutton form. In some instances the sire was used on his 
own progeny, but this was not generally practiced. Later 
when the breeding habit had been modified so that the 
ewes could be expected to produce lambs at the required 
season, pure males of the dark-faced breeds' were used in 
service to a limited extent, especially those of the South- 
down breed. 



244 MANAGKMKNT AND FEEDING OK SHEEP 

During the summer the ewes were grazed largely on 
sown pastures, such as winter rye, rape, peas and oats, 
cabbage, and even sorghum, along with a limited amount 
of grass pastures. They were so grazed because of the 
absence of enough of grass pasture. When the grass 
pasture was entirely lacking, which happened in some in- 
stances, hay was fed. In winter the ewes that were nurs- 
ing their lambs were fed hay or good corn fodder, a liberal 
supply of grain, and also of field roots. The lambs were 
also encouraged to take grain and roots as soon as they 
would take such food. It was found that some of the 
ewes of the first cross produced lambs sufficiently early. 
A large proportion of those of the second cross or gener- 
ation did so, while those of the third generation practi- 
cally all produced winter lambs. Only a small per cent 
of the ewes were discarded because of breeding too late 
in the season. Moreover, it was found that some of the 
ewes would take service earlier than was desired, if al- 
lowed to do so. In some instances lambs were produced 
in October. Some of these, too large to take the market 
as milk lambs at the proper season, weighed as much as 
80 to 90 pounds when sold in February. It was also 
found that lambs obtained from grade Dorset ewes and 
dark-faced sires, especially of the Southdown breed, were 
more in favor with the dealers than those from Dorset sires. 

Other than Dorset sires — ^^'hen the supply of dams 
becomes sufficiently numerous, other than Dorset sfres 
may be used should this be desired. The advantage from 
using them would be the production of lambs with supe- 
rior mutton form. When such a result could not be 
looked for with a considerable degree of confidence, it 
should not be attempted. The reference thus made to the 
use of other sires does not imply that the Dorset is not 
possessed of good mutton form, but that some breeds may 
be somewhat superior to them in this respect. When no 
improvement would result from change in the breed from 
which the sires are chosen, it should not be made. 



MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 245 

For such production pure Southdown sires have been 
found the most suitable, and probably next to these the 
Shropshires. Lambs from the former have a plumpness 
and compactness of form that indicate the ideal mutton 
form. Moreover, they bear a refinement of bone that is 
closely associated with good killing properties. They 
also have a tendency to mature early, which insures rapid 
growth while they are young. 

Such breeding, however, would probably result in 
bringing about some reversion of the early breeding 
habit; hence it would seem unwise to retain the females 
for future breeding. There would also be some decrease 
in the prolificacy of ewes thus begotten and some lessen- 
ing of the capacity for milk production. These sires, 
therefore, should only be used when dams that produce 
winter lambs are plentiful, or when it is not desired longer 
to secure from them ewes to be retained for breeding. 

Where milk lambs should be grown — Milk lambs 
should not be grown except where all the facilities exist 
for making the work at least reasonably successful. It 
should not be attempted : (i) Where the facilities for mar- 
keting are not good; (2) where the requisite foods cannot 
be grown with a reasonable degree of success ; (3) where 
the place of consumption is far distant from the place of 
production ; and (4) where the demand does not exist for 
such lambs. 

The facilities for marketing include proximity to a 
railroad station, and telegraph or telephone communica- 
tions with the dealers who want the lambs. Under such 
conditions only can orders be received and filled with 
sufficient promptness. A long distance from the place of 
shipment would add much to the expense of the same. 

While it is, of course, allowable to purchase the grain 
or a part of it when growing milk lambs, the profit will 
be proportionately greater when the food can be grown 
successfully on the farm. The coarse fodders used, being 
somewhat special in character, can be grown in a more 



246 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

suitable form when grown at home. Succulent food, also, 
can only be furnished under average conditions by the 
farms on which it is fed. Such food plays a very impor- 
tant part in the feeding of milk lambs. 

While the facilities for moving food products quickly 
have been brought to a high degree of perfection, in a 
country as large as the United States, where milk lambs 
must go far to reach the market, the express charges 
would too much cut in upon the profits. The cost of 
shipping lambs, for instance, to New York city that are 
grown within 100 miles of the same will be much less 
than when they are grown 1,000 miles distant. 

The demand for milk lambs does not exist in all parts 
of the country. They furnish meat only for the wealthy ; 
hence they will only find ready sale in certain centers. 
This, of course, does not include lambs sold locally in the 
spring season while still sucking the dams. These are in 
demand wherever meat is in demand, but they do not 
bring such prices as are usually paid for winter lambs. 

Quarters suitable for milk lambs — In northern areas 
the quarters for milk lambs should be reasonably warm. 
While it is not absolutely necessary to have a barn built 
on the basement plan in which to keep them, such a barn 
is very suitable for the work. It should not. however, be 
dark or dam.p, such as barns are in some instances that 
are built close against or into a bank. A bright apart- 
ment of a basement is a good place to have the young 
lambs come into life. Under such conditions the risk to 
the young lambs is not great, though the thermometer 
without should register 30 degrees and even more below 
zero. In the absence of apartments in a basement a lamb- 
ing pen should be partitioned ofif in the sheep house, the 
sheeting or lining of which would make it warm enough 
to answer the purpose. This will usually be accomplished 
by lining the studs inclosing the pen with sheeting of 
boards on one or both sides of the studs, and using the 
paper under the sheeting at least on one side. 



MILK LAMBS : HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 247 

It is entirely practicable to keep the dams, and also 
the lambs, in a well-ventilated basement during the entire 
period covered in the life of the lambs. This may be done 
with entire safety to the lambs and also to the dams, as 
the period covered by such feeding does not in many in- 
stances exceed three months. The even and reasonably 
warm temperature of such shelter is favorable to econom- 
ical development in the lambs. They may be reared, 
however, without hazard in ordinary sheep sheds if the 
lambing pens are warm. But when reared in such sheds 
access to a sunny yard in mild weather will doubtless 
prove beneficial. 

In latitudes milder than those of the northern states, 
it is not necessary to have sheds so warm, and the neces- 
sity grows less as the average temperature rises. In the 
far South shelter that would protect from cold wind and 
rain would probably prove ample. 

Food and care for the dams — Before the lambs come, 
grading the dams is seldom a necessity. It may be neces- 
sary in some instances, however, to separate aged ewes 
and any that may be lean for more liberal feeding. Sub- 
sequently to the lambing, however, grading may be ad- 
vantageous. The needs of both ewes and lambs may 
call for this, as the ewes are not equally capable of taking 
forcing food at the stages of the suckling period, and the 
same is true in even greater degree of the lambs. The 
ewes that produce lambs for replenishing the flock should 
also be separated from the others at the time of lambing, 
and should be fed apart from them, as forced feeding such as 
is given to the others is not good for them or for their lambs. 

After the ewes have lambs, the fodders best adapted 
to such feeding are those that are largely nitrogenous in 
their composition, fine in the character of the growth and 
cured so the fodders are appetizing. Alfalfa cut as soon 
as the first blooms show, clovers cut in early bloom and 
Canada field peas and oats enough to sustain the crop 
while growing are excellent. Finely grown corn and 



248 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

sorghum are good, but not as good as the former. Of the 
clovers, alsike is the most suitable, being of fine growth. 
In the central states and southward, cowpea hay will be 
in order, in addition to other fodders that may be grown. 
They may be allowed to pick over straw used for bedding, 
but should not be expected to eat much of it. 

The succulence fed must consist mainly of field roots 
or corn silage, save in localities so mild that grazing 
is practicable to some extent. Before the ewes produce 
lambs, and for a few days subsequently, the ewes should 
not be given more succulence than is necessary to keep 
the digestion in tone. An excess of succulent food at such 
a time may so stimulate milk formation as to lead to an 
inflamed condition of the udder and possibly to other 
evils. But after the lambs have become able to take all 
the milk, the dams may be fed field roots practically up 
to their capacity to consume them. No food can be given 
to the ewes that will tend more to stimulate the milk 
flow. Corn silage furnishes good succulence, and in the 
absence of field roots should be fed to the extent of 3 to 
4 pounds a day when it can be had and when it is of good 
quality. It may be somewhat hazardous, however, to 
feed it up to the capacity of the sheep to consume it, as 
it is not so safe a food as field roots. Far South various 
kinds of grazing may be accessible in the fields during a 
portion of the time in the form of rape, the sand vetch, 
winter oats and even cabbage. During intervals when 
grazing would be imprudent these could be fed as a soil- 
ing food. 

The most suitable concentrates, without regard to 
cost, are those that will best maintain the milk flow for 
the young lambs, and that will at the same time prevent 
undue emaciation in the dams. These will include, or 
may include, all the leading cereals grown, but blended with a 
view to make a milk-producing ration. Usually wheat 
bran will be given considerable prominence in the mix- 
ture. The unground grain will most frequently include 



MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 249 

oats or barley and corn, because they are grown to a 
greater extent than other grains. Where the prices will 
admit of such feeding, the following is an excellent mix- 
ture : 25 to 30 per cent wheat bran, ^^ oats, peas or bar- 
ley, 36 corn and the balance oilcake or cottonseed meal. 
Some grain may be fed before the ewes produce lambs, 
but if so it must be fed with much moderation. After the 
lambs are several days old, it may be fed almost up to the 
limit of the capacity of the ewes to consume the food 
with a relish. When the ewes are to be sold for meat 
soon after the lambs have been marketed, the corn should 
be considerably increased in the grain ration. 

Care and food for the lambs — Milk lambs may be 
grown when exposed to temperatures that are cool or 
even cold, after they have reached the age of two or three 
days, but the fact should not be forgotten that thus ex- 
posed they will not grow so quickly as when in warmer 
quarters, and the food consumption will be relatively 
greater. Because of this growers of milk lambs in the 
North prefer keeping them reasonably warm, even to the 
extent, in some instances, of keeping them and the dams 
inside all the while. 

The exercise called for is not usually so much for 
milk lambs as for lambs grown for breeding. Too much 
exercise which they are likely to take when they are given 
unlimited range, would retard fattening, though favor- 
able to muscle development. Too little exercise may re- 
sult in more or less of paralysis in the limbs of the fattest 
lambs. Usually they will take enough of exercise when 
they are given a reasonable amount of room, and espe- 
cially when they may have access to a yard on fine days 
an hour or two daily. 

As soon as the lambs can be induced to eat, they 
should be fed meal, and later grain, apart from the ewes. 
Such food as ground oats, wheat middlings and oil meal 
are suitable at the first and better in some sort of com- 
bination than when fed alone. A little sugar sprinkled 



250 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

over the food encourages them to begin eating. After 
some of the older ones have begun to eat, the younger 
lambs will learn from them. After they have begun to 
take food freely, any one of the following rations should 
give good results: (1) Bran, oats, cracked corn and oil- 
cake in the proportions of, say, three and two parts re- 
spectively by weight; (2) cracked corn, ground barley, 
oats and oilcake in the proportions of three, four and 
three parts ; (3) wheat and oats unground in about equal 
parts. Various other grain mixtures will also answer. As 
the ages of the lambs increase the proportion of the corn 
fed should increase. The meal or grain fed should be re- 
moved each time before more is added, if any is left over. 
As soon as the young lambs will eat freely they should be 
fed meal and other food three times a day. They will not 
eat much fodder if fed meal thus freely, but fine clover, 
preferably alsike, will prove helpful when made accessi- 
ble to them. But they will make an excellent use of roots 
pulped or dried in fine strips, such as can be obtained from 
certain kinds of root slicers. 

The food must be fed to the lambs when it is inac- 
cessible to the dams, and when the lambs have access to 
it at will. A creep made in a corner of the pen in which 
the lambs are kept, will usually answer the purpose best. 

Marketing the lambs — The aim should be to secure 
a market for the lambs before any are ready for ship- 
ment. Those who live sufficiently near the consumer can, 
of course, deliver the lambs dressed as needed, but when 
not so situated it will be necessary to ship them to a dealer 
as ordered. Under such conditions of disposal, the ad- 
vantage of having the lambing season cover a consider- 
able period will be apparent. Should the supply be greater 
than the demand, the surplus lambs should be put upon 
the general market, as they will usually sell for more at 
such a time than they will bring if carried over until the 
following autumn. 

The necessity for filling the orders with all reason- 



MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 251 

able promptness will be at once apparent. This fact 
should be taken into account by those who grow 
milk lambs when they enter upon the work. The con- 
sumers of milk lambs are buying a fancy article for which 
they are paying a fancy price, hence any lack of prompt- 
ness in filling their orders may result in the loss of that 
particular market. 

Whether the lambs shall be shipped alive or dead 
will depend somewhat on the distance to be covered while 
in transit. Lambs that are delivered by conveyance may 
be delivered alive if sold to a dealer, or dead if sold to the 
consumer. Lambs sent by rail are usually sent dead after 
the stomach and its appendages have been removed, but 
such removal does not always include the heart, liver or 
lungs. In some instances the skins are not removed but 
more commonly they are. 

The methods followed in dressing the lambs are not 
uniform, but the following is submitted as a method that 
may be safely followed : The lamb is bled by making a 
small opening, frequently in the left side of the neck, just 
back of the head, and in front of the neck bones. The 
blade of the knife should cut the large artery found there. 
The stomach and entrails are then removed without dis- 
turbing the liver, lungs or heart. Two spreaders are then 
inserted so as to cross each other at right angles when in 
place. These are pointed and have shoulders, and one 
end of each is inserted in the outer side of the hind fiank, 
the other end entering the opposite side of the lamb near 
the chest. The caul fat is then spread so as to cover all 
the meat not covered with the skin, and is held in place 
by skewers at the thighs and at the point of the spreaders. 
As soon as the animal heat is all given oi¥ the carcass is 
wrapped in strong paper put on tightly and it is then 
further inclosed in burlap or sacking. Such lambs dressed 
have sometimes been shipped in light boxes just large 
enough to admit of slipping the carcass into them from 
the end. 



252 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

The dams after weaning — Whether the darns are sold 
after the lambs are weaned or retained for future breed- 
ing, the grain food should be at once reduced in quantity, 
and the succulent food should be almost entirely withheld. 
The object is to reduce the milk flow. It might not be 
quite safe to withhold all the grain and succulent food at 
once, on the principle that sudden changes of diet are 
frequently hurtful. In the case of ewes that are to be 
sold, it would certainly be a mistake to reduce the grain 
food to a low limit, as it is important that these ewes shall 
not lose flesh. Under such feeding it might take a longer 
time to dry off the ewes, but even so the extra attention 
thus called for is a trifling expense compared with allow- 
ing the ewes to lose flesh. 

In some instances the lambs are allowed to take milk 
from the ewes whose lambs have been sold, in addition 
to that furnished by their mothers. In this way lambs 
not sufficiently rounded out may soon be made ready for 
market. To accomplish this, however, usually involves 
holding the ewes two or three times a day while the lambs 
take the food thus furnished. The shepherd must be the 
judge of the instances in which this method will prove 
profitable. 

Much attention must be given to the udders when the 
lambs are being sold. The dams have been under high 
pressure feeding and have not gone far beyond the time 
of greatest milk production during the lactation period; 
hence drying them off is a very different matter from the 
drying of ewes that have nursed their lambs for the full 
lactation period. The udders should be examined daily 
for a number of days, and should be relieved of a part 
of the milk as frequently as may be found necessary. 

The lambs to be retained should be given only such 
food as will maintain them in a moderate condition as to 
flesh until they are turned onto the grazing, except when 
it is desired to have them breed again as soon as this 
can be brought about. Should that be desired, stimulat- 



MILK lambs: how to get. grow and market 253 

ing food should be fed. Such feeding would only be 
necessary when two crops of lambs are desired in one 
}ear, which under conditions such as are found in north- 
ern areas is not desirable, as the tax is so severe upon the 
breeding powers of dams that ere long it would result in 
deterioration. 

Disposing of the dams — When the dams are to be 
sold soon after the sale of the lambs, they must be given 
freely such food as will fatten them quickly. When thus 
fattened they will sell for a better price than could be ob- 
tained for them if sold later, as the competition in mut- 
ton in the market is less severe in the spring season when 
such ewes may reach the market than it would be later. 

For some time previous to the selling of the lambs, 
these ewes should be fed more grain that is fattening in 
its nature, as corn, than would be necessary for ewes that 
are to be retained for breeding, but this food should not 
be fed to them to the extent of hindering free milk pro- 
duction for the sustenance of the lambs. 

As soon as the ewes that are to be sold are dried oflf 
they should be pushed, so to speak, for the block. They 
can stand such high feeding for a time, as they have, in 
a manner, been accustomed to it before the lambs were 
weaned. Corn will furnish the cheapest concentrate for 
such fattening in corn-growing areas ; but. of course, 
other food, as oats or wheat bran, should be fed along with 
it. Ewes may be finished more quickly before than after 
the turning out season, because of the temporary loss of 
weight that usually follows turning animals out on grass, 
but it may under some conditions be more costly than fin- 
ishing on grass. 

Growing milk lambs from grazing — The areas 
adapted to grov/ing milk lambs chiefly from grazing are 
somewhat limited in the United States, and they can 
scarcely be said to exist at all in Canada. They are con- 
fined to portions of the Gulf States and to limited areas 
along the Pacific coast, but in states further north than 



254 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

those on the Gulf of Mexico, grazing may be furnished 
much later and earlier than further north. 

Prominent among the foods that may be grown for 
such fattening are rape, kale and cabbage. Such foods 
also as winter oats, winter rye, crimson clover and vetches 
may be utilized more or less. These crops would be 
grazed in part and in part used as soiling food, as in ad- 
verse weather they should not be grazed. The condition 
of the ground may also make grazing impracticable in 
very wet weather. 

While being grazed the ewes and lambs will fare bet- 
ter if they may have access to a grass pasture. Where 
this is not obtainable they should be given fodder in the 
cured form. The efifect upon the digestion will be favor- 
able. More or less grain will be helpful to both ewes and 
lambs, but especially when they can feed largely on rape, 
kale or cabbage that is well headed. The amount of grain 
called for is much less than when the ewes are confined 
and fed chiefly on dry food. 

There may be instances in which it may be desirable 
to cut the green food and to feed it to the flock on the 
soiling plan. By this method the food may be made ac- 
cessible to the sheep with more uniformity than when 
they are grazed. They will be less exposed in bad weather 
and less food will be wasted, but, of course, more labor is 
involved. In the absence of experience in growing lambs 
thus the method that will certainly prove the most profit- 
able cannot be given. 

The room for the industry — That the room for the 
industry as conducted at present is not unlimited will be 
very evident when it is remembered that winter lamb sold 
at the prices which now prevail is. in a sense, a luxury. 
But that it may be greatly extended cannot be doubted. 
In many important centers it is not known at present, as 
it has never been introduced into these. At the present 
time it is only used in but few of the metropolitan cities 
of the republic. 



MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 255 

The factors that develop consumption are : The pro- 
duction of the lambs, the knowledge that they are being 
produced, and in proximity or reasonable proximity to a 
center of wealth. Winter lambs, therefore, will find a 
market in small centers of population at the rate of, say, 
$8 to $10 for a lamb that weighs from 35 to 45 pounds. 
But it should be possible to grow lambs in winter so as 
to put them on the market at prices considerably lower 
than those named. Should that be done, the market for 
them would be unlimited. 

Of course, the growing of summer lambs will always 
have an important place, but under certain conditions it 
may prove more profitable to grow winter lambs, even 
though sold at not more than $4 to $5 per animal. The 
following are among the advantages that may accrue 
from growing them: (i) The work is done at a season 
when field work is not pressing. (2) The lambs being 
grown in winter are but little subject to parasitic dis- 
eases, that so frequently prey upon lambs in summer. 
(3) The price obtained is much more per pound than that 
given for summer lambs. In the southern states Iambs 
should grow better in winter than in summer, as they 
are not exposed to the prolonged heat of the summer 
season. 



CHAPTER XIII 

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR 
EXHIBITION 

In Chapter XIII the growing and fitting of sheep for 
exhibition is discussed under the following subheads : 
(i) The sources from which pure breds are obtained; (2) 
The sources from which grades and cross breds are ob- 
tained ; (3) The quarters for the ewes and lambs ; (4) 
Food for the dams while nursing in sheds; (5) Feed- 
ing and caring for the lambs until weaned ; (6) Grazing 
for the dams before the time of weaning; (7) The lambs 
subsequently to weaning; (8) Trimming the wool for the 
fairs; (9) Washing and smearing sheep for shows; (10) 
Special treatment for Merino sheep; (11) Show sheep in 
transit to the fairs ; (12) Management subsequently to the 
fair season; (13) The exercise that is required; (14) Ex- 
cessive fatness to be avoided; (15) The age to which 
sheep may be shown; and (16) Miscellaneous observa- 
tions on showing sheep. 

Sources from which pure breds come — As a rule the 
leading exhibitors of pure-bred sheep in Great Britain 
grow the animals which they exhibit. In the United 
States and Canada this method is reversed by many 
breeders. They import from the flocks of Britain many 
of the sheep which they show. This does not apply 
equally to all breeds, as the American and Delaine Me- 
rino are in all instances home grown, and in nearly all in- 
stances it is true of the Rambouillets. This superiority 
of the mutton breeds of sheep in Britain is owing in part 
to the temperate and moist climate of that country, so 
favorable to the abundant growth of those succulent foods 
that are so helpful in forcing early growth, but it is only 
fair to concede that it is owing in part to the genius of 

256 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 257 

the breeders in evolving superior types and to the skill 
and fidelity shown by the shepherds in caring for the 
sheep. In some flocks, however, many of the pure-bred 
sheep shown even at the largest fairs are bred at home. 
Whether the time will come when prize-winning sheep at 
the leading fairs shall be grown rather than imported, is a 
question on which opinions dififer. The solution must 
come from the genius of our people, for in some portions 
of the United States the conditions are very similar to 
those found in Great Britain. 

The leading characteristics to be sought in pure breds 
that are to be shown are those which belong to the vari- 
ous pure breeds, as indicated by the standards which be- 
long to these. It is absolutely essential that the breed 
characteristics shall be present, including in fair degree 
even points that are regarded as fancy, because of the 
extent to which these influence the awards of many 
judges. The characteristics as to form and size are rela- 
tively the most important, but those that relate to wool 
are also important. It should be carefully examined with 
reference to density, length, texture and all other quali- 
ties, and also with reference to its even distribution over 
the body. The shades of color in head and legs all have 
a bearing on the awards, and the same is true of a rosy 
and pink skin. In the males much stress should be laid 
upon the evidences of masculinity, and in the females on 
those of femininity. Prominent among the former are 
compactness, strong head, neck and breast development, 
and strong but not coarse limbs. Prominent among the 
latter are refinement of head, neck and limbs, and a suffi- 
ciency of length of body. When selecting sheep to be 
mated with a view to rear show animals from them, much 
attention should be given to the record of performance in 
the near ancestry when such information is obtainable. 

Sources from which grades and crossbreds come — 
Grade and cross-bred sheep shown at fairs are almost en- 
tirely grown on the farms of those who exhibit them ; 




208 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 259 

hence in the exhibits of these the skill of the breeder is 
more clearly demonstrated than in many of the exhibits 
of pure breds. In but rare instances do professional show 
men buy a pen of grades or crossbreds and with them 
make the rounds of the leading fairs, as they do frequently 
with pure breds. 

When grown by the exhibitor, they may be one of several 
grades and crosses. The foundation females should be 
ewes of fairly good form, not less than medium in size for 
the grade, and possessed of that structure which indi- 
cates good milk-giving properties. They should possess 
much inherent ruggedness ; hence ewes much mixed in 
breeding, even such as come from the range, may answer 
the purpose well. Though decided indications of Merino 
blood are present, they are not to be rejected on that ac- 
count. Such ewes may be variously crossed upon, but no 
cross will serve the purpose better, as a rule, than one of 
Shropshire or Southdown blood. In the experience of the 
author, excellent lambs for exhibition purposes were pro- 
duced from ewes mated with a Southdown ram that were 
the offspring of such ewes as have just been referred to, 
mated with a Shropshire ram. Lambs thus bred at the 
Minnesota Station in 1901 were given first place at the 
Chicago International, when showing against the world. 
In some instances it was found that lambs of the first 
generation answered for such breeding, but more com- 
monly those of the second generation were even more 
suitable, and in some instances further grading gave even 
better results. 

The rams chosen for mating with such females 
should possess medium size for the breed, fleshing prop- 
erties of a high order and of proved prepotency where it 
is found possible to obtain such evidence. Should rams 
unusually large for the breed be chosen, the danger is 
present that something of coarseness and too much 
strength of limb may be transmitted to the progeny. In 
the leading fat stock fairs of Great Britain, the progeny of 



26o MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Hampshire and Oxford Down sires have been the more 
frequent prize winners, but in those of the United States 
and Canada the honors have come more frequently to the 
progeny of Shropshire and Southdown sires. 

The style of carcass wanted is influenced by form, 
size, symmetry, bone and breed or grade. The cylindri- 
cal and compact form, with much of width, depth and 
roundness, and accompanied by firmness of back, is the 
most suitable. An animal of medium size and much 
symmetry, that is of correct correlation in the different 
parts, is in every way to be preferred to one of more size 
and less of symmetry. Bone even less than medium for 
the breed or grade is preferred to bone that is larger. 
While good specimens may be found in all the mutton 
breeds and their grades, those that conform most nearly 
to the Southdown type stand the best chance of winning. 

Quarters for the ewes and lambs — To grow sheep or 
lambs for exhibition does not call for quarters elaborate 
or costly. In the quarters furnished it is only necessary 
to make provision for shelter from drafts, from storms, 
from excessive sunshine and for taking food and exer- 
cise. Exposure to drafts in the sheds, hurtful to any 
class of sheep, would so retard progress in show animals 
as to defeat the object for which they are kept. Protec- 
tion from storms includes protection from rain, sleet, 
snow and strong or harsh winds. Hot sunshine will in- 
jure show sheep more than others, since they carry more 
fat and the greater the exposure to hot sunshine, the more 
is the annoyance at the same time, as a rule, from flies. 
The quarters for such sheep should be large enough to 
prevent all crowding and the trough room should be 
ample. It is also indispensable that the sheep shall be 
given opportunity to exercise freely, or the flesh which 
they carry will not be sufficiently firm. 

While the dams are nursing their young they are 
simply kept in an apartment separate from other sheep. 
This is necessary in order to furnish them with such foods 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 261 

as they should have, as the aim is at such a time to force 
milk production to the limit. But it is not necessary to 
keep them separate from the other members of the flock 
previously to the lambing season, under proper conditions 
of management. In addition to roomy quarters they 
should, of course, have much freedom of access to a yard 
adjacent. Later they should have access to suitable graz- 
ing, but only at stated times, as shown below. Where 
grading cannot be furnished, green food should be fed 
to them in paddocks. 

The quarters for the dams will also be suitable for 
the lambs up to the weaning season. But in addition 
it is imperative that the lambs are given a protected 
place where they can take a portion of their food apart 
from the dams. Such a place may usually be furnished 
within the apartment in which the dams are fed (see 
page 260). 

When the lambs are weaned, they may be kept dur- 
ing the heat of the day in the same apartment that the 
dams have vacated, but at other times should have access 
to a yard, a paddock or to an adjacent pasture. The sheds 
must be darkened during the day by covering the open 
windows with sacking or some such material as will keep 
out flies and will, at the same time, provide ample ventila- 
tion. 

The quarters suitable for shearlings in summer are 
limited to those just described as suitable for lambs. In 
winter they want a reasonably roomy, bright and airy 
space free from drafts and adjacent to a yard. They must 
be kept apart from other sheep in order that they may be 
given proper and suitable food. 

Food for the dams while nursing in sheds — The fod- 
ders fed to the dams must be of high quality and such as 
are favorable to milk production. Alfalfa and clover stand 
at the head of the list in suitability for such feeding, but 
peas and oats and vetches and oats of fine growth are ex- 
cellent. The alfalfa should be cut at first bloom, and the 



262 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

clovers in early bloom, and the peas and oats or vetches 
and oats a little short of maturity. Millet of fine growth 
and leafy, cut when the heads are beginning to tint, is 
good. The same is true of fodder corn, bright and leafy, 
of fine growth and cut a little short of full maturity. 
Feeding fodders in variety is helpful to sheep of all grades, 
and it is especially so to ewes that are being forced, as it 
were, to provide milk for their lambs. Such fodder may 
be given two or three times a day, and if any is left over, 
it should be carefully removed before furnishing the next 
feed. 

In no form can succulence be given so safely or so 
beneficially to such ewes when on dry food as in the form 
of field roots. While any kind of field roots will serve 
the purpose, there is no variety of the same that is supe- 
rior to the rutabaga or the mangel. After the lambs are 
able to take all the milk, the ewes may be given 6 to 8 
pounds of these in a day, or practically all that they will 
consume. They should be given in two feeds and in the 
sliced or pulped form. Next in value to field roots is corn 
silage, but it is not to be fed so freely as field roots. 
When fed in large quantities, as large as, say, six pounds 
or more daily, it has not proved so entirely satisfactory 
as field roots in its influence on the health of the sheep. 

While various concentrates may be fed, none are 
more suitable under average conditions than a mixture 01 
oats, bran and corn or peas in the proportion of five, three 
and two parts respectively. Of this they may be fed 
virtually all that they will eat with a relish. A very lim- 
ited amount of oilcake will also be in some degree help- 
ful when it can be obtained. 

Feeding and caring for the lambs — The aim should 
be to have lambs that are to be shown at the early autumn 
fairs come in February or March. For the late fairs, as 
the December fat stock shows, they should come in late 
March, or even as late as early April. If they come too 
early they will be too far grown to meet the conditions 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 263 

called for to make them compete in that form which is 
most in consonance with the present standard of feeding. 
For such a use, single lambs are preferred, for reasons 
that will be apparent. As some lambs fail to attain to the 
standard indicated in the promise of early growth, the 
aim should be to grow more than the number called for by 
the exhibit or exhibits, and to select from these as the sea- 
son for exhibiting draws near. 

In some instances it may be possible to obtain the 
assistance which a nurse ewe may give to a lamb in fur- 
nishing milk for it, in addition to what is obtained from 
its own mother. Ewes that may have lost their own off- 
spring may be thus employed, but in some instances it is 
difficult to make them thus perform the part of a foster 
mother. In other instances the opposite may be true. In 
no other way can the most satisfactory development be 
obtained from a lamb reared for any purpose than by sup- 
plying it abundantly with ewe's milk. 

Cow's milk is sometimes fed to lambs that are being 
fitted for exhibition with a view to increase their size. 
This is more common in case of the large breeds and with 
lambs reared for breeders than with lambs to be shown 
in the purely fat classes, for size in these would seem to 
count for less than in the breeding classes. Lambs are 
thus fed from a bottle with a nipple attached. Some sugar 
is added at first, that the milk may thus be made to ap- 
proximate more nearly the constituents in cow's milk. 
In some instances a small percentage of water is added. 
Lambs are sometimes thus fed up to and on through the 
fair season. Testimony, however, regarding the subse- 
quent behavior of lambs thus fed when reared for breed- 
ing uses is unfavorable. This applies to both males and 
females, but is most unfortunate in the case of the former, 
because of the more important part they play individ- 
ually in the flock. 

The best fodders for such lambs while yet unweaned 
include clover, alfalfa and vetch hay. These should be of 



264 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

the finest growth found in those respective kinds of hay. 
Alfalfa cut not later than the very first appearance of 
blooms is particularly suitable. The same is true of alsike 
clover, or the alsike and small white varieties grown to- 
gether. The vetch hay should also be grown so thickly 
as to preclude the opportunity for coarse growth. When 
on good pasture the lambs may not take much hay, but 
they will consume more or less of it and with manifest 
advantage. Such fodder should be fed in small racks in- 
accessible to the ewes. For succulence they should be 
given field oats or cabbage until the season of plentiful 
grazing arrives. The most suitable roots at such a time 
are rutabagas, mangels and sugar beets, as these are then 
in good condition for being fed. They should be fed 
sliced or pulped, and if sliced the aim should be to so slice 
them that they shall be fed in thin strips. The cabbage 
heads should also be cut up or sliced — in fact, minced in 
a sense — so that the lambs may readily partake of them. 

Young lambs will begin to eat grain, when, say, not 
more than 10 days old. There is no better grain for 
lambs when they begin to take such food than ground or 
crushed oats fed alone. A few days later bran may be 
added with advantage. When they have become well 
started on such feed, say at the age of four or five weeks, 
the following grain ration will be found highly suitable 
through the remainder of the nursing period : Oats, bran, 
corn or peas by measure in the proportions of 50, 25, 20 
and 5 per cent respectively. Peas are preferable to corn 
during the milk period, but corn is preferable later. They 
should be given practically all the grain that they will 
eat. 

Lambs to be exhibited should be docked and cas- 
trated at an early age (see pages 114-117), Both operations 
should be performed with the exercise of careful judg- 
ment. The length of the stub has a bearing on the sym- 
metry of the lamb, and also the size of the sac from 
which the testicles have been drawn. Short docking is 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 265 

preferred to that which is larger, as it adds to the square- 
like appearance of the buttock. When but little of the 
sac is removed in castration, it fills with fat in the well- 
finished animal, and is so far an indication of condition. 

Grazing for the dams — The aim should be to furnish 
grazing for the ewes that will aid them in furnishing a 
large amount of milk, relatively, until the lambs are 
weaned. Such grazing should be not only palatable but 
highly succulent. 

Winter rye is first ready in the spring. After rye, 
brome grass, blue grass, clover and rape follow each other 
in near succession where all these can be grown. The 
spring vetch also will be ready somewhat earlier than 
rape. After vetch or rape pasture has arrived, so com- 
pletely suitable are they that it is not necessary to look 
for other pasture. Peas, oats, rape and vetch sown to- 
gether furnish grazing that is high in favor with some 
of those who grow sheep that are to be shown. 

Should it be impracticable to furnish grazing, it may 
be possible to furnish soiling food, and this when chosen 
with judgment and judiciously fed will give results about 
as satisfactory as those obtained from grazing. But feed- 
ing soiling food involves more labor, and it does not 
furnish an equal opportunity with grazing for the sheep 
to take exercise. The best soiling foods include alfalfa, 
clover, vetches and oats, kale and rape. When these are 
of fine growth and leafy and full of succulence, they will 
prove much more suitable than when the opposite condi- 
tions prevail. None of these can be obtained so early as 
grazing, and until food can be obtained from them the 
feeding of roots should be continued, but not necessarily 
after the feeding of soiling food or even the grazing of 
pasture has commenced. 

The feeding of concentrates to both ewes and Iambs 
should be continued without change until the lambs are 
weaned, except that in nearly all instances, it may be re- 
duced in quantity. For the components of the grain food 



266 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

for such feeding of the ewes see page 247, and of the 
lambs see page 249. 

Lambs subsequently to weaning — Lambs for exhibi- 
tion should be allowed to remain somewhat longer with 
the ewes than other lambs. They should seldom be 
weaned short of the age of five months. Before being 
weaned they are allowed access to grazing with the dams 
during a considerable portion of the day ; but subse- 
quently, and indeed after the arrival of hot weather, they 
are kept in sheds and the yards attached much of the 
time. After the weaning period they are allowed to graze 
for an hour or more in the morning, and also in the even- 
ing, but in some instances they are only allowed to graze 
once a day, but for a longer period. When grazed once 
a day, the evening is preferred, as dew is not then present 
on the pastures. As the season for exhibiting approaches, 
the period for grazing should probably be curtailed, as 
only about so much exercise is needed, and if taken in ex- 
cess, increase would probably be somewhat retarded. 

Until the fair season, the feeding of more or less 
cured fodders should be continued from the weaning sea- 
son onward. Even though the lambs are being fed liber- 
ally on green food, they will consume a considerable pro- 
portion of such food, for the reason that the appetite calls 
for it. It is craved probably because it acts as a regulator 
of digestion. It will best serve the purpose if composed 
of such fodders as alfalfa, clover or vetch hay. 

While various kinds of grazing may be used subse- 
quently to weaning, none is more suitable than clover and 
rape, both of which may usually be in season at such a 
time. These will answer practically the same purpose if 
fed as soiling food. 

After the lambs are weaned, they will profit by the 
judicious feeding of field roots, or what may be an equiv- 
alent, as, for instance, cabbage. Fall turnips come earlier 
than other roots, and they may be fed — roots and tops 
together. Later rutabagas and mangels or sugar beets 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 267 

may be fed, but for fear of urinary troubles mangels 
should not be fed to the males. It may be necessary to 
restrict the feeding of roots somewhat at such a time, 
lest the lambs should not take enough grain. 

The following grain ration will be found suitable 
after the weaning season : Oats, bran, corn or peas and 
oil cake in the proportions of 50, 15, 25 and 10 per cent, 
but toward the end of the fitting period the proportion 
of the corn fed should be increased, to add high finish to 
the carcass. The grain should be fed in liberal supply, 
but never to the extent of putting the animals off feed or 
of inducing that flabby condition of flesh that indicates 
over-fitting. To feed just enough and not too much of 
any one kind of food calls for the continual exercise of 
judgment. 

Trimming the wool for the fairs — The practice of 
what is known as "trimming" the fleece of show sheep 
when preparing them for exhibition is almost universal 
with sheep of the middle wool breeds. It is practiced to 
a less extent with sheep of the long wool breeds. Merinos 
are not thus trimmed, whatsoever the type or breed may 
be, but in some instances umber is rubbed sparingly on 
the hips, legs and breast where the wool has become 
frayed by rubbing. The smaller the breed that is 
trimmed, the more severe, as a rule, is the trimming. By 
trimming is meant the removal of the points of the wool 
fibers of the fleece or of some part of it with the shears, 
and in some instances the further removal in addition of 
small portions of the length of the wool fiber on certain 
parts of the body. As the wool fibers of Merinos are very 
frequently glued together more or less at the outer ex- 
tremities, such trimming of the fleece would not be possi- 
ble. 

The object sought in trimming the fleece is to add 
to the beautiful and symmetrical appearance of the animal 
when it comes into the show ring. The sheep whose 
fleece is carefully trimmed will not only appear more 



268 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

symmetrical, as a rule, than the one not trimmed, but it 
will also appear larger and plumper in its entire anat- 
omy. The optical illusion thus produced is not a little 
surprising. Trimming may also tend to hide defects of 
conformation which otherwise would be more apparent to 
the eye. Because of this the practice of trimming has 
been fiercely assailed, and without sufficient reason. If 
the judge were not allowed to use his hands when making 
the awards on sheep, the morality of such trimming 
might be questioned. The competent judge by the use 
of his hands is supposed to discover any defects of car- 
cass hidden by the trimmer's art or by the covering which 
nature bestowed upon the animal. It would seem to be 
quite as commendable for the exhibitor of sheep to im- 
prove them by trimming as for the exhibitor of cattle to 
comb the hair upwards near the topline, that the back 
may thereby appear wider to the eye. 

The trimming of the fleece of the middle wool breeds 
is accomplished in outline as follows : The fleece is 
blocked out with the shears in what may be termed the 
rough ; that is, it is given the desired outline by clipping 
off the projecting points of the wool fibers. In doing 
this the top and bottom lines should be made straight 
and parallel, the breast full and rounding, the thighs 
nicely turned and the buttock wide across and yet plump. 
The fleece is then gone over with a stifif brush dipped in 
water, to aid in straightening the ends of the wool fibers. 
In some instances a currycomb is also used. The clipping 
of the points, which follows, is made by using sharp thin- 
bladed and easy-working shears, which are held quite 
level and at right angles to the wool fibers. To make a 
finished picture, the trimming must be repeated several 
times at intervals. Much practice and good judgment are 
called for to make an exact trimmer. But little trimming 
is given to sheep of the long-wool breeds. 

When trimming sheep that are to be shown, the 
peculiarities of fleece should be given due recognition. 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 269 

Tlie Down breeds are covered with a fleece of varying 
length, according to the breed. In these density counts 
for more than length of staple. The less dense the wool, 
however, in a breed, the more valuable is length of staple, 
hence the less severe is the trimming as the length of 
staple increases. The fleece of long wools should be of 
great length of staple, hence the wool fibers are not 
clipped back to any extent save on the back. 

Washing and smearing show sheep — Certain breeds 
of sheep are washed when preparing them for the fairs. 
Such washing, however, is apparently confined to the 
long wooled breeds. Why washing should virtually be 
confined to the long wooled breeds is not clearly apparent, 
at least in all instances. It is true, however, that the 
fleece of the long wool breeds is less able to protect itself 
from the presence of foreign matters, and the wool is 
washed to remove these. Washing tends to free the 
pores of the skin from gummy and other adherent mat- 
ters. In so far as it does this, it promotes the natural flow 
of the lubricants that help to keep the wool fibers in a 
correct condition. The first washing is given not long 
subsequently to the shearing, and the second within two 
to three weeks of the show season. The washing may be 
conveniently done in a dipping vat if not unduly large. 
Castile soap of good quality is generally used. But after 
the washing all trace of the soap should be removed by 
careful rinsing with clear water, as the continued presence 
of soap would tend to make the fleece harsh and dry. 
When the washing is done sufficiently long before the 
time for exhibiting, the yolk so extends along the wool 
fibers as to give them a brilliant appearance, the outside 
of the fleece meanwhile being so protected to preserve 
its snow-white appearance in the show ring. 

The practice of smearing the wool of certain breeds, 
as, for instance, the Down breeds, is sometimes adopted. 
It was followed more or less in Culley's time, and it is 
still practiced in many sections of Great Britain, where 



270 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

it is more popular even now than in America. Smearing 
or coloring- sheep means saturating the surface of the 
body, more especially along the back or sides, with some 
prepared coloring matter. Various mixtures are used. 
These vary with the fashion in favor at the time. A mix- 
ture much in favor is made by using yellow ocher, burnt 
umber and olive oil. The ocher in powdered form is 
added to the oil. The umber is next added, until the 
mixture has the desired shade. It is applied by pouring 
a small quantity into the palm of one hand, rubbing the 
palms together and then applying to the fleece. The ap- 
plication is more effective when applied after trimming 
the fleece, and blankets should then be used. It is claimed 
that more of uniformity in appearance is secured by 
smearing, but it injures the wool somewhat for manufac- 
turing uses. Some breeders use it as a sort of trade 
mark by which their sheep may be distinguished from 
others. The practice probably originated, in a degree, 
to protect the sheep from the cold rains of autumn and 
winter. But since sheep fitted for fairs are not exposed 
to such storms, it is at least questionable if smearing as 
such should find countenance in the show ring. 

Smearing is only practiced with certain breeds. It is 
practiced more or less with all the Down and dark-faced 
breeds, including the Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, 
Hampshire and Oxford Down breeds. Why smearing is 
practiced on these and not on certain other breeds is not 
altogether apparent. The whims of the exhibitors of 
these, and more especially of the shepherds, would seem 
to be largely responsible for the innovation. Of course, 
the dark face and legs of these breeds harmonize better 
with dark shades in the fleece than would the white faces 
and legs of other breeds. 

The fine-wool breeds are never smeared, as the natu- 
ral gluing of the wool fibers at their tips renders such 
smearing entirely unnecessary as a means of protection. 
The Dorsets, Tunis and Cheviots are not thus smeared. 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 2/1 

The same is true of all the long and coarse wool breeds. 
Owing to peculiarities of wool formation, smearing them 
would make them appear ludicrous. 

Of course, show sheep should be kept free from ticks. 
This may necessitate dipping them as lambs, and also 
annually when shown in subsequent years. The dipping 
may be done in the usual way, and along with the other 
members of the flock; or it may be done by using a small 
tank, and separately, as a prevention against the possi- 
bility of injury (see page 433). The wisdom of combining 
dipping and ordinary washing is at least to be questioned. 
Dipping rather detracts from the external beauty of the 
fleece for a time. Hence an interval of say not less than 
six w^eeks should elapse between the time of dipping and 
the showing of the sheep. 

Special treatment for Merino sheep — When prepar- 
ing Merinos for the fairs, the feeding called for is the 
same virtually as for other sheep. Additional precautions, 
however, are called for to secure that condition in the 
wool that commends it to the skilled judge. Should Me- 
rino sheep be exposed to outdoor conditions up to the 
time of the fairs, the fleece would have a rough and shaggy 
appearance externally. It would not have that exquis- 
itely soft response to the sense of touch so much desired 
in Merino wool. Nor would the yolk be found in that 
condition and distribution which would result in high- 
est luster and beauty in the wool fibers on all parts of the 
body. 

While all the characteristics such as belong to high 
quality wool in the Merino fleece should be sought (see 
Chapter III), the following are to be regarded as spe- 
cially important: (i) Absolute freedom in the external 
surface of the wool from clots and indurations and much 
softness and moistness to the touch ; (2) a beautiful lus- 
trous condition of the wool when the fleece is opened on 
any part of the body; (3) an even distribution of the yolk 
along the entire length of the wool, resulting in a glis- 



2']2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OV SHEEP 

tening appearance in each fiber when held separately ; 
(4) a shade of color in the wool masses that may vary 
from a glistening white to an orange or golden tint ac- 
cording to the amount of the yolk present and to some 
extent it may be to the strain of the sheep. 

Such a condition of the wool is greatly promoted by- 
judicious housing and blanketing for some time previous 
to the fairs. When Merinos are not housed for some time 
previous to the fairs, clots will probably be found on the 
external surface of the fleece and it will be harsh to the 
touch. Exposure to heavy rains may result in the bleach- 
ing of the yolk to a dull tint and in such injury to its 
stratifications as to cause it to wash down into the wool 
in masses that disfigure it. Especially will such changes 
of the yolk follow exposure subject to housing. The 
housing should protect from exposure to rain, dews and 
frost, and it should cover from, say, 6 to 12 weeks, pre- 
viously to the fair. 

In the case of Merinos blankets not only help to keep 
the fleece clean externally, but they aid in the even dis- 
tribution of the yolk because of the influence which they 
exert probably on temperature in the wool. They are 
also used on other sheep as the show season approaches, 
and more especially when in transit and at the fairs. In 
addition to keeping the fleece clean and compact, blankets 
protect more or less from flies and provide warmth. At 
the fairs they also tend to prevent thoughtless visitors 
from disturbing the wool. Blanketing is more essential 
when preparing Merino sheep for the fairs than with 
sheep of other breeds. 

Show sheep in transit to the fairs — When sheep are 
to be shown, the aim should be to have all the arrange- 
ments pertaining to the work made in ample time. This 
means that the entries shall be made early; that the 
means of transit shall be arranged for so that the time for 
leaving shall be definitely and unerringly fixed, and that 
food shall be provided in ample supply. These arrange- 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 2"]}^ 

ments must, of course, follow and not precede a definite 
mapping out of the show circuit. 

Every care should be observed in so making the en- 
tries that no opportunity would be lost in competing for 
a prize which there was any reasonable hope of winning. 
The aim should be to have a number of bales of good 
clover and alfalfa included in the food shipment, 
as such food cannot be secured at all fairs. By another 
method the hay is cut and carried in sacks. Cabbage 
heads and field roots in liberal supply should be sacked, 
especially the latter. The grain supply, mixed or un- 
mixed, is carried in sacks, and it should include a supply 
of wheat bran and oil cake, nor should salt be forgotten. 
The tools called for include hammer, saw, nippers, shears 
and a trocar. The medicines include blue vitriol and lin- 
seed or castor oil. Blankets and bedding and washing 
utensils for the shepherd are essential to complete the 
outfit. 

A day or two before shipping, the food should be re- 
duced. The reduction should apply to both grain and 
roots. Heavy feeding of grain at such a time will dis- 
turb the digestion. To feed large quantities of roots 
would produce a too lax condition of the bowels. The 
reduction thus made should continue while the sheep are 
in transit. 

Sheep which carry a relatively large amount of flesh 
should not be driven far when loading them for shipment 
or unloading them on the fair grounds, and when driven 
it should be leisurely. The journey should be made 
morning or evening, and never in the heat of the day. 
The necessary directions in the cars for rams and ewes, 
also lambs, should be made beforehand, that each should 
be thus afforded opportunity to take its proper food. 
They should also be given water in such quantities as 
they will take, but of this they will not take much when 
thev are in transit. 



2/4 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

When at the fairs food should not be given to the 
sheep in quantities too large the first day. Subsequently 
they should be in condition to go on a full ration again, 
and the food should be the same in kind as that fed be- 
fore shipment. Succulent food especially is much rel- 
ished at such a time, and should be fed up to the limit of 
what may be judicious. Kohl-rabi, cabbage and green 
clover make excellent food adjuncts at the autumn fairs, 
and all these may usually be had at that season in any 
state. Where the facilities will admit of it, the aim should 
be to allow the sheep to take a little exercise in the cool 
of the day while picking over some portion of the grazing 
such as may be near the show pens. 

It is of much importance that the fair grounds shall 
be reached a day or two before the regular opening of 
the fair. The sheep are thus given opportunity to recover 
bloom lost in transit; the shepherd has time to groom 
them again with the shears, and in this way they come 
into the show ring with the best possible chance which 
can be given to them for winning in the competitions. 

Management subsequently to the fair season — In 
some respects the management of lambs, rams and ewes 
subsequently to the fair is very similar. In other respects 
it is different. More especially with reference to certain 
details that apply to the management of each. All classes 
of sheep that have been shown and are to be shown again, 
whatsoever the age, should be fed less heavily for a con- 
siderable period on their return from the fairs, but the 
reduction should be made gradually. The benefit from 
such reduction lies in relaxing the tension put upon the 
digestive organs, and in holding back premature develop- 
ment. The management of shearling wethers subse- 
quently to the season for exhibiting need not be consid- 
ered, as in nearly all instances they are slaughtered at 
the close of the exhibition season. 

When lambs return from the fairs that are to be 
shown in the shearling form as wethers, the grain por- 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 2/5 

tion should be reduced about one-half and the oilcake in 
it should also be proportionately reduced. The following 
grain mixture will be very suitable : Oats 50 per cent, bran 
25, corn or peas 20 and oilcake 5. They should have a 
li]:)eral supply of fodder and roots, and if the season will 
admit of it more or less of grazing. 

When the winter closes in they should be given 
enough grain to result in the maintenance of good flesh. 
Until grazing comes in the spring the following grain 
food should serve the purpose : Oats and wheat bran, 
in the proportions of 3 and 2 parts by weight. The sup- 
ply of roots should be most liberal until the arrival of 
grazing, after which it may be reduced and then discon- 
tinued for a time. 

The grazing may consist of such green food as may 
be in season, as blue grass, clover or rape. During the 
first half of the grazing season, or even for a longer period, 
they may be given access to the grazing for a considerable 
time, morning and evening, but later and toward the show 
season, access to the grazing for one hour or two in the 
evening will give them enough exercise. Some green food 
fed inside may also be advantageous. The following 
grain ration will answer nicely during the grazing season 
until the final forcing period begins. 

The forcing period should cover from two to three 
inonths preceding the fair season. The following grain 
ration along with others that may be given, will suffice : 
Oats 50 per cent, bran 15, corn or peas 25 and wheat 10. 
When on full feed from two to three pounds should be 
fed daily. More corn or peas should be added if neces- 
sary as the season approaches for entering the show ring. 
The feeding of roots in the autumn and also of fodders 
may be conducted as in the case of the lambs. 

Shearling wethers to be shown are housed rather 
than grazed; that is, they are housed to the extent of 
remaining in the sheds at night and during all the warm 
portion of the day. The requisites to provide them with 



276 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ventilation and to protect them from flies are virtually 
the same as in the case of lambs (see page 322). An apart- 
ment of a well-lighted and well-aired basement is very 
suitable, because of the coolness which it furnishes in 
summer. 

In the case of rams and ewes to be shown again, the 
reduction in flesh should be very gradually made, and at 
the first it should be accomplished more through exercise 
than by a material reduction in the grain fed. Should the 
reduction follow too quickly, the bright luster in the wool 
will be diminished, and in some parts it may fall off. Un- 
til the season for showing again, the care given to rams, 
and likewise the food, will be much the same as that 
called for by shearling wethers (see page 275), with the 
difference, first, that they should be kept more on pasture, 
and, second, that they be given less carbonaceous food, as 
corn. The grazing gives the needed exercise and the car- 
bonaceous grain portion would be unfavorable to breed- 
ing. 

Ewes that are to be shown again should be given 
much the same kinds of food and the same kind of treat- 
ment as would be suitable for rams, as just submitted. 
They should be bred early, and if allowed to give nurse 
to their lambs the latter should be weaned early, or it 
would not be possible to put sufficient increase on the car- 
cass to prepare it for competing with even a reasonable 
hope of winning. Because of the extent to which flesh is 
usually lost during the nursing period, some breeders rear 
the Iambs produced on other dams. Ewes not to be 
shown again should be reduced in flesh with all reason- 
able quickness. As difficulty is sometimes experienced 
in getting such ewes to breed, the aim should be to have 
them served with a young and vigorous male. In some 
instances service is allowed from more than one male. 

The exercise that is required — Yards alone may fur- 
nish enough exercise for sheep reared only for being 
shown in the fat classes prior to disposing of them. But 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 2/7 

even these will profit by the opportunity to take more or 
less of exercise in the pasture. The exercise not only tends 
to maintain health and vigor, but it also has an important 
bearing on the maintenance of a free and easy locomotion. 

While yards may suffice in some instances to furnish 
exercise for sheep to be shown in the fat classes, show 
sheep that are to be used in breeding must have larger 
room for exercise. They must be given the larger room 
of an ample paddock, or better still the liberty to roam 
about in a small pasture. Such exercise is absolutely 
necessary to sustain begetting power in the rams and 
conceptive power in the ewes. The opportunity thus 
given to exercise should be such that it may hinder some- 
what the loading of the body with that amount of fat 
which is allowable in the fat classes, but such exercise is 
absolutely essential if the breeding powers are to be re- 
tained. 

While in order to secure the necessary exercise dis- 
tant pastures would be inconvenient, those not immedi- 
ately at hand may be made to answer, the chief objec- 
tion being loss in time to the shepherd in taking them to 
and from the pastures. The better plan, therefore, is to 
have the pastures near and to control the degree of the 
exercise given by the time given to the sheep to remain in 
the pastures. 

During a prolonged fair circuit the question of ex- 
ercise during the same becomes increasingly important, 
owing to the closeness of the confinement in the show 
pens. The aim should be to exercise them for a short 
time morning and evening. The aim should be further 
to allow those which are pen companions to graze thus 
and take exercise together. When they become "shaky" 
on their feet while making the show circuit, the want of 
exercise will probably be the cause of such a condition. 

Excessive fatness to be avoided — The degree of the 
fatness to be sought has not yet been decided to the sat- 
isfaction of everyone. Even the highest authorities are 



278 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

not a unit with reference to this question. This applies 
not only to sheep in the fat classes, but also to those in 
the breeding classes. 

The contention is frequently made that animals in 
the fat classes should be brought to that degree of finish 
only that will best fit the carcass for profitable disposal 
on the block. This would mean, though differently ex- 
pressed, that the animal capable of winning alive should 
also win out in the dead meat class. This as a theory is 
excellent, but in practice the winnings of the animals 
when alive seldom correspond with the winnings in the 
carcass or dead meat classes. It is not easy to give the 
reasons why it is so, but it is probably true that in the 
live classes the unwritten standard for judging animals 
alive calls for the highest perfection of development and 
finish attainable that does no violence to symmetry, good 
firm handling and an easy gait, while the unwritten stand- 
ard for judging dead calls for a carcass that will sell for 
the highest price to the consumer. Such finish in the 
living animal is always, or nearly always, beyond the de- 
gree of finish in the carcass that exactly meets the de- 
mands of the consumer. 

The further contention is frequently made that when 
sheep are shown in the breeding classes they should not 
come into the ring in higher finish than is consonant with 
good and regular breeding. This also sounds well in 
theory, but the fact remains that the present standard for 
judging calls for a higher degree of finish in the animals 
than is compatible with the very best results to be ob- 
tained in breeding. It follows, therefore, that animals 
which stand the best chance for winning in the show 
rings will not be the best breeders, and vice versa. 

But whether sheep are shown in the fat or breeding 
classes, there is a degree of finish which if passed will 
hold therh back from highest honors in the ring. The in- 
dications of over-finish include: (i) A soft and flabby 
condition of the flesh on certain parts of the body, espe- 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 279 

cially at the flanks. Such a condition is present more fre- 
quently in the show rams than in show wethers. (2) Labored 
locomotion including a limping or "groggy" gait, which 
points with no little certainty to imprudent or over- 
feeding. (3) Wool that is losing its luster. When wool 
covering sheep loaded with flesh has a dull appearance, 
it indicates, with no little certainty, fading, that is, reced- 
ing bloom. These evidences are more objectionable, rel- 
atively, in breeding animals than in the fat classes, for 
when present they indicate that the usefulness of the animals 
for breeding is virtually gone. Excess in fitting sheep 
is sooner reached with breeding stocks than with those in 
the fat classes. 

The age to which sheep may be shown — They are sel- 
dom found in the show ring beyond the age of three years, 
for the reason that they seldom maintain form and bloom 
beyond that age equal in degree with sheep that are 
younger, nor is the fleece of a sheep beyond the age men- 
tioned equal to that of the same sheep at a younger age. 
The same sheep, therefore, seldom appears in the show 
ring during more than three successive seasons, and in 
many instances two seasons is the limit of the show yard 
career. 

Sheep never appear in finer bloom than when they 
are shown as lambs. At that age they carry wool longer 
than that which they carry as shearlings. But shearlings 
also may carry that finish which is very attractive to the 
eye. They are also nearly matured ; hence when the con- 
test for supremacy is between shearlings and those that 
are older, the former usually bear away the honors. Sheep 
seldom appear in the show ring the third season in as 
perfect form as previously, although there are some ex- 
ceptions. If exhibitors are to hold their place, therefore, 
in the show rings, the necessity for superseding the older 
show animals is continuous. 

That the high fitting called for to enable breeding 
sheep to carry honors does militate against the most sue- 



280 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

cessful breeding cannot be questioned. Even though be- 
getting power should not be lost in the rams, they are not 
so valuable as breeders as they would have been had they 
not been thus fitted. Their movement in service is less 
active than that of other rams, which is so far against 
them, and the animals begotten by them are in many in- 
stances not equal in vigor with lambs begotteri by what 
are termed field rams. The lambs produced by ewes thus 
fitted are also usually inferior to other lambs in inherent 
ruggedness, even though such ewes should retain the 
ability to conceive. Those who exhibit sheep, therefore, 
must not look for results in the line of breeding that they 
may reap from members of the fiock not thus fitted. 

Miscellaneous observations on showing sheep — (i) 
Certain terms are commonly used with reference to the 
showing of sheep to designate exactly what is included 
in each exhibit or what is meant by each award made. 
Sheep are shown singly, in pairs, in pens or in flocks. In 
the classes by ages they are shown singly. In the class 
exhibits a ram lamb is a male shown under the age of one 
year; a shearling ram is a male shown between the age 
of one and two years ; and an aged ram is a male that has 
passed the age of two years. The ewes are similarly 
graded. When shown for champion honors both rams 
and ewes are also shown singly. A pair is two of one sex, 
but usually only ewes are shown in pairs. A pen, unless 
otherwise stated, consists of three individuals. In the 
breeding classes a pen usually includes one male, what- 
soever the number of females. In the fat classes a pen 
usually includes five wethers. A flock in some instances 
includes an aged ram, a shearling ram and a ram lamb ; 
also the same number of ewes of similar ages, but fre- 
quently it includes a mature male and three females 
shown in the aged, shearling and lamb forms. The terms 
pen and flock are sometimes used to express the same 
thing. A special prize means a premium offered outside 
of and in addition to the ordinary list of premiums. A 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 281 

champion prize is a prize offered the best animal, male 
or female, of the breed, but the term champion also ap- 
plies to a pen or flock. A sweepstake prize is a prize 
oft"ered for the best individual, male or female, the best 
pen or the best flock, all breeds competing. 

2. The prize lists issued by the various fair associa- 
tions usually determine the date beyond w^hich breeding 
sheep are not to be shorn. Usually this date does not go 
back further than April ist. When the date is not thus 
fixed, there is no dishonesty in shearing earlier, providing 
there is no misrepresentation as to the date of shearing 
in response to a question from the judge while engaged 
in making the awards. In order to add to the length of 
the wool, what is termed "stubble shearing" is sometimes 
practiced. This means shearing which leaves on part of 
the growth of the wool. When dexterously done it may 
also be made to aid in giving the sheep that appearance 
in form which is admired in the show ring. The opera- 
tion is performed by leveling the wool on the top and 
bottom lines with the shears. The sides should then be 
trimmed off sufficiently. The wool on the breast and 
hindquarters are left overfull at the first, and are grad- 
ually molded to the required shapes by subsequent trim- 
ming. Usually about half the length of the fleece is taken 
off. Stubble shearing is not dishonest when it violates 
no rule of the fair association, but the benefit from the 
practice to the breeders of sheep or to the sheep industry 
is not apparent. Why, then, should it be given any coun- 
tenance? In the fat classes length of wool does not carry 
with it the same value as in the breeding classes. Very 
long wool is not really desirable, as when present that 
plumpness in the appearance so essential in fat sheep in 
the show ring is not so easily maintained. Because of this 
very early shearing brings with it no real benefit to such 
sheep. Of course, they should be shorn before the weight 
of the fleece becomes oppressively warm. 



282 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

3. Some care is necessary with reference to the racks 
and troughs from which sheep take their feed when they 
are to be shown. The racks must not allow any chaff 
or other fodder to lodge about the wool on the neck of 
the sheep. The height of the feeding trough must be so 
adjusted, and also of the board over which the sheep feed 
on the side of the same, that the wool will not be dis- 
turbed on the underside of the throat. These may seem 
to be matters of but little moment, and yet they are suffi- 
ciently important in themselves to determine which way 
the award will go in a close contest. For the proper con- 
struction of feed racks see page 330. 

4. While attention should be given to trimming the 
feet of sheep on the arable farm, for whatsoever purpose 
they may be kept, it is trebly important that such care 
shall be extended to the feet of show sheep. The feet of 
the latter should be trimmed at least once a year. Such 
trimming is done in outline as follows : The toes are cut 
back with the nippers to the desired length. The excess 
of horn is then trimmed off. Horn is in excess when it 
grows outward so that it cracks or breaks on the outer 
edges or when it turns under the outer rim of the sole. 
It is removed by the aid of a knife, sharp and strong. 
The sole may also be improved by a slight paring. The 
trimming is best done some time before the sheep are 
shown. 

5. It is greatly important that show sheep shall come 
into the ring at what is termed the bloom stage. By bloom 
is meant that condition in which the show animal appears 
and handles at its best. When the animal has reached this 
stage there is a charm of finish about it that is scarcely 
possible of complete interpretation by the use of language, 
but it is readily discerned when present by the competent 
judge. When applied to the appearance, it includes not 
only attractiveness in every part of the external form, 
but also a corresponding gracefulness and ease of locomo- 
tion. When applied to finish, it means that condition of 



GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 283 

tiesh which most completely meets the requirements with 
reference to quality, distribution and firmness. Short of 
the bloom period the animal has not attained the highest 
finish of which it is capable. Beyond that stage the bane- 
ful evidences of fitting too long continued become at once 
apparent. Sheep and also other animals can only be held 
for a limited period at the bloom stage ; hence the impor- 
tance of having them reach it just at the fair season. To 
have them do so is an evidence of skill on the part of the 
feeder. This should be most carefully considered when 
show sheep are to be carried through a show circuit some- 
what prolonged. They should be made to enter it a little 
short of the stage of full bloom. They may then be car- 
ried on to full bloom before the circuit has been completed 
and before the evidences of retrogression become appar- 
ent. It is also increasingly difficult to bring animals into 
the show ring during succeeding years in a proper condi- 
tion of bloom. The time comes at length when such a con- 
dition is unattainable. 

6. Unless sheep have more or less training previously, 
they will not assume that graceful and easy attitude in 
the show ring which is so pleasing to any judge. If they 
are restless and stand with the feet unduly spread or too 
close together, the chances for winning are proportion- 
ately discounted. Restlessness cannot be prevented in the 
absence of previous handling. The spreading of the feet 
forward and backward causes the back to go down. When 
the feet are drawn together the back will be hunched up. 
In such an instance gentle pressure over the loin with the 
right hand, the left hand being underneath the jaw, will 
correct such an attitude. Should the animal stand, as it 
were, under protest, as though trying to get away from 
the attendant, it will not win out in the contest. Should 
the ground be uneven, the aim should be to place the 
sheep so that the fore part will be on the higher ground. 
Rams may be shown to the best advantage when they 
are trained to lead on the halter at an early age. When 



284 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

SO trained they will not hesitate to follow the shepherd 
through a crowd, however dense. Should the award be 
adverse, the exhibitor should meet the situation calmly. 
In the lottery of judging — for in close competition it is a 
lottery, in a sense — the award, though in some instances 
scarcely deserved, may go the other way. 

7. Should the suspicion arise in the mind of the judge 
that the age of some of the animals before him has been 
misrepresented, he can usually detect the same by examin- 
ing the teeth. They do not always show equal advance- 
ment in growth at similar ages, but the progress made is 
so nearly similar in different animals that the liability to 
mistake on the part of a good judge is reduced to a mini- 
mum. The following rules relating to the age of show 
sheep, as indicated by the teeth, have been adopted by 
several of the leading fair associations of Great Britain : 
Sheep having their central permanent incisors cut will be 
considered as exceeding the age of 10 months. Sheep 
having their central permanent incisors fully up will be 
considered as exceeding the age of 12 months. Sheep 
having their third pair of permanent incisors cut will be 
considered as exceeding 19 months. Sheep having their 
third pair of permanent incisors fully up and the tempo- 
rary molars shed will be considered as exceeding 24 
months. Sheep having their corner permanent incisors 
well up and showing marks of wear will be considered as 
exceeding 36 months. 

8. Stock rams which have been exhibited at the fairs 
and are again to be exhibited must be managed with great 
care if they are to retain their breeding powers. Ordina- 
rily ram lambs shown at the autumn fairs should come as 
soon as possible after January ist. To have them come 
earlier would give them too much the appearance of a 
shearling. A show lamb should not be permitted to serve 
more than say 12 to 15 females while yet in the lamb form. 
A shearling ram which is to, be shown again should not 
serve more than, say, 24 to 30 females while yet in the 



GROWING AND FlTTIiNG SHEEP lOR EXHIBITION 285 

shearling form. A two-shear ram should not serve 
more than, say, 36 to 45 females if he is to be shown 
again. A ram in the three-shear form may be used freely 
in service, as it is not probable that he will go back into 
the show ring again. Fortunately service is not usually 
required of rams until the fairs for the season are over; 
hence such service comes at a time when it is legitimate 
to cease burdening the animal with flesh. During the sea- 
son of service succulent food should be freely fed to such 
rams. 

9. The management of ewe lambs that are to be 
shown at the fairs in the lamb form in the breeding classes 
is less complex than that relating to ram lambs which are 
to be shown and also used in service, as the former are 
not bred in the lamb form. Of course, they should not be 
given so much carbonaceous food when fitting them for 
the fairs as would be admissible in fitting for the fat 
classes; nor would it be advisable to load them down so 
heavily with flesh. On returning from the fairs if they 
can be fed freely on rape they may not need much grain 
so long as such food lasts. 

10. Blankets, so essential in preparing sheep for ex- 
hibition and while making the circuit of the fairs, may be 
made from such material as burlap, sacking and ducking. 
The ducking is more suitable for use at the fairs on the 
score of appearance, though the other material named will 
be amply suitable for home use. They should be made so 
as to fasten in front of the breast with buttons or straps, 
the former being preferable. At the thigh a strap should 
be fastened to the blanket in front, passed inside of the 
thigh when in place, and buttoned or buckled to the 
blanket at the rear of the thigh. 



CHAPTER XIV 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 

In Chapter XIV the following phases of these ques- 
tions are discussed: (i) Washing sheep before shearing; 
(2) When sheep should and should not be washed; (3) 
The different methods of washing; (4) Handling sheep 
when washing or shearing them; (5) Tagging sheep 
when washed; (6) Sheep between washing and shearing; 
(7) The time and place for shearing; (8) Methods of 
shearing sheep ; and (9) Handling the shorn flock. With- 
in the last two or three decades there has been much mod- 
ification in the methods of managing sheep, both with ref- 
erence to washing and shearing. Modifications with ref- 
erence to the former have been brought about by the 
transfer of manufacturing wool from the farm home to 
the factory, and with reference to the latter by the in- 
troduction of shearing by machinery. 

Washing sheep before shearing — The following are 
chief among the arguments that favor washing sheep 
before they are shorn: (i) It is virtually necessary to 
wash them when the wool is to be manufactured at home ; 
(2) the shearing is more easily done when the sheep are 
washed; (3) there is a saving in the cost of transporta- 
tion ; and (4) it is possible to estimate more correctly the 
exact value of the wool. 

When wool is to be manufactured at home, the neces- 
sity for washing it is based on the fact that washing the 
dirt out of the fleece is much more easily accomplished 
while it is yet on the sheep's back than after it has been 
removed. The manipulation of the wool so as to remove 
the dirt is accomplished much easier when the fleece rests 
on a firm surface, which helps to hold it in place, such as 
is presented by the body of the sheep. It is based on the 

286 



WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 287 

further fact that the wool is left in better condition after 
it is washed when on the back of the sheep. Where thus 
washed time is given for the yolk which lubricates the 
wool to rise in the same to add to its luster. If the wool is 
washed after it is shorn, the bright appearance is so far lost. 

The difference in the ease with which sheep may be 
shorn when they are washed may not be much in some 
instances, as when there is not much dirt in the wool. In 
other instances the difference may be material, for the 
reason that the fleece contains much dirt. 

The saving in the cost of transportation when wool 
is washed is frequently material. The saving in the trans- 
portation of washed wool results, first, from the removal 
of dirt from the wool, and second, from the removal of an 
excess of yolk. Frequently the excess of yolk is greater 
than the amount of other foreign substances in the wool. 
Particularly is this true of Merino wool. Medium wools 
usually contain a less amount of yolk than fine wools, 
and long wools a less amount than medium wools. The 
shrinkage in the scouring of fine wools of good quality 
when washed is about 50 per cent ; when not washed, it 
has been put at somewhere near 70 per cent. The objec- 
tion to the shipping of wool unwashed, arising from cost, 
becomes stronger as the distance from market increases. 
Under some conditions it is, of course, of but little 
account. 

When wool is washed it is easier to adjust the price 
that should be paid for wool of the same grade. The 
quality in such instances is so far gauged by the charac- 
ter of the washing. 

When the wool is unwashed, no two fleeces may be 
exactly alike in the amount of foreign substances which 
they contain, and the same is true in a much greater de- 
gree of wools obtained from different flocks. To pay the 
same price for such wools would not be just, and to dif- 
ferentiate the price based on the amount of foreign sub- 
stances which the wool contains is very difficult. 



288 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Prominent among the arguments that favor shear- 
ing sheep without washing them are the following: (i) 
When shorn unwashed, the shearing may be done earlier 
than when washing precedes the shearing; (2) when foot 
rot is present, washing is a sure means of distributing 
the same; and (3) washing frequently harms the sheep 
and also those who wash them. 

When sheep are shorn unwashed, they can be shorn 
as early as may be desired. When washed before shorn, 
it is necessary to wait for the water to warm before the 
sheep are washed when any considerable number are to 
be thus washed. Of course, it would be possible to heat 
the water when only a small number are to be shorn. 

Experience has shown that if sheep are not washed 
until the water in brooks or ponds becomes warm enough 
to admit of washing them, that they suffer from an excess 
of heat which so far interferes with and hinders the high- 
est increase that may be obtained from them. Especially 
is this true of sheep that are being fattened and of dams 
that are nursing their lambs, and it is also true of the 
lambs. The increase made by sheep that are being 
pushed on stimulating foods for the market is seriously 
hindered by allowing them to suffer from the excessive 
heat which results from carrying a fleece which is no 
longer necessary to protect them. Likewise ewes that 
are suckling lambs can furnish more milk for them when 
not burdened with a heavy fleece of wool. 

When foot rot is present in any given locality, the 
danger is imminent that it will be contracted by and dis- 
tributed in flocks that occupy pens that are used in com- 
mon to confine sheep that are being washed. Even though 
the different flocks should occupy different pens when 
being washed at a common washing place, it is not easily 
possible to prevent them from treading on common 
ground and thus contracting the disease. 

The process of washing involves the handling of the 
sheep more or less. It also involves handling them be- 



WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 289 

times when they are easily injured, as when they are with 
lamb. It is possible to handle them without injury, but 
in rough hands the}' will suffer more or less harm. They 
resist the eft'ort to take them into the water, and if pulled 
in by rough hands they will certainly take harm. 

The person who washes sheep may also incur some 
hazard. The water may still be cold when the washing 
season arrives, and when it is there is hazard to the 
washer, especiall}^ when the number to be washed is large. 
Remaining in the water for a long period at such a time 
is attended with no little hazard, especially to those who 
have become somewhat advanced in life. 

Until within the last two or three decades, the prac- 
tice of washing sheep was very common. In many com- 
munities it was universal. It was necessitated by the cus- 
tom of spinning the wool at home and of manufacturing 
it into cloth. The manufacture of wool is now almost en- 
tirely relegated to the factories, hence the washing of 
sheep prior to shearing them is fast becoming obsolete. 
It is now largely confined to long wooled sheep that are 
to be exhibited at the fairs. In some instances the wash- 
ing of lambs of the long wooled breeds with water and 
soap in the early autumn is practiced. The object is to 
loosen the tangles in the wool, to add luster to it and to 
improve the general appearance of the fleece. Long 
wooled sheep are always thus washed before they are 
shown in the autumn, and lambs are sometimes washed in 
good flocks, even when they are not to be shorn. 

When sheep should and should not be washed — It 
would seem correct to say that sheep should not be 
washed, as a rule, except when the wool is to be manu- 
factured at home, or in the case of certain breeds that are 
to be shown. Notwithstanding the objections to shearing 
and transporting wools in the unwashed form, the prac- 
tice of so handling it is now almost universal. It has be- 
come so doubtless because the benefit that accrues from 
handling wools thus has been found greater than from 



290 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

handling it by the other method. The improved methods 
of scouring which science has produced has contributed 
to the change. The decadence of the industry of manu- 
facturing of wool at home is in some ways to be regretted, 
but in the end the change will doubtless contribute to the 
advance of a high civilization. 

The washing of show sheep, as previously intimated, 
is confined almost entirely to the long wooled breeds. 
Why it should be thus is to some extent the outcome of 
fashion, but the fashion probably rests on a sensible founda- 
tion. That washing does add to the beauty of the fleece of 
the long wooled sheep cannot be questioned. 

That it adds to the beauty of the middle wooled 
breeds, particularly those of the dark-faced types, may be 
questioned. That it does not add to the beauty of the 
fleece in the fine wooled breeds is a foregone conclusion. 

The time for washing sheep will, of course, vary. 
When small flocks are to be washed in a tank, the water 
being artificially warmed, they may be washed at almost 
any time desired. When large flocks are to be washed, 
the washing is deferred until the water in the streams and 
ponds or lakes in which the sheep are washed has become 
warm enough to bring little or no hazard to those who 
wash them or to the sheep. When the water is so warm 
that it brings no hazard to those who do the washing, 
it will certainly bring no hazard to the sheep. In the 
northern states sheep are not usually washed in a large 
way before the end of May. Going southward, the season 
may be continually advanced until the Gulf of Mexico is 
reached. The character of the season may cause a varia- 
tion of 10 to 14 days in the usual time for washing. In 
some seasons it will be advanced and in some retarded. 
But in no instances does it take place so early as to pre- 
clude the sheep from taking harm through carrying an 
excessive weight of fleece after the days have begun to 
wax warm. 



WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 29I 

The different methods of washing — Three methods of 
washing sheep have been adopted. By the first they are 
washed in a tank ; by the second in a brook, pond or 
lake ; and by the third beneath an artificial waterfall. All 
of these, save the first, are being practiced to a less ex- 
tent as the years go by, and for the reason that sheep 
are now being washed to a much less extent before shear- 
ing than formerly. Where sheep were kept in large bands 
the plan was sometimes adopted of swimming them back 
and forth several times across a running stream. This 
method, accomplished by the shepherd through the aid 
of dogs, was, of course, an imperfect method of washing, 
but it was only practiced on sheep that grazed on pastures 
on which the wool was not much liable to be soiled in a 
marked degree. 

Sheep are now more commonly washed in a tank or 
box than by any other method, as when they are washed 
it is rather to prepare them for being shown at fairs than 
to cleanse the wool previous to the shearing. A home- 
made box made watertight will serve the purpose, but a 
galvanized tank such as may now be readily obtained 
from various manufacturers of the same is probably not 
more costly and it will last much longer. The same tank 
may be used for dipping, for ticks or scab, where the flock 
is small. When sheep are thus washed, the water should 
be brought to a tepid condition should the season of the 
year call for warming it thus. Some kind of pure soap 
added to the water will greatly aid in removing foreign 
matters from the wool. It will also dissolve and remove 
yolk scales that may have accumulated. Subsequent 
to the washing, the wool should be treated with clean 
water so as to remove the soap, as, unremoved, it would 
injure its appearance. Two persons will handle the 
sheep that are thus being washed much more readily than 
one, especially when they are large. They should be clad 
in waterproof clothing. The water in the box or tank 
should be renewed occasionally, as it soon becomes so 



292 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

soiled as to be unsuited to further cleansing of the wool. 
When sheep are washed in a stream, pond or lake, 
the method followed in each instance is virtually the 
same. The following are prominent among the requisites 
for each washing: (i) A pen or inclosure adjacent to the 
water in which to inclose the sheep ; (2) water deep 
enough to prevent the sheep from touching the bottom 
with their feet and plentiful in supply ; (3) a shore line of 
sand or gravel, and freedom from mud or mire underneath 
the water. The inclosure may be made of rails, poles or 
hurdles. Hurdles such as are used m grazing sheep (see 
page 13) are more suitable than the other materials 
named, because of the ease with which they may be 
moved and the quickness with which they may be put in 
place. The ends of the two sides should come down 
against the water, to prevent the sheep from getting 
around them and thus escaping from the inclosure. Un- 
less the water is deep enough to float the sheep they can- 
not be handled to the best advantage by the person wash- 
ing them. As soon as the water causes them to swim they 
are immediately under the control of the washer who can 
move them about in the water with but little effort. When 
water thus deep comes up against the shore where the 
pen faces the water the sheep are at once under control 
when they enter the same, so that wading them out into 
deep water, which they so much resist, is not necessary. 
The necessity for a sandy or gravelly shore where the 
sheep enter and leave the water will be at once apparent. 
Especially where the sheep leave the water is this impor- 
tant, as wading through mud or mire would leave the 
sheep in such condition when they reach the land, that 
they would need to be washed again. Should the Ixittom 
where the sheep are washed be covered with soft mud, it ■ 
would not be possible to wash wool clean there, because 
of the fouling of the water through the rising of mud 
particles. A plentiful supply of water is helpful, as it 
does not foul readily, but it should not be so deep as to 



WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 293 

interfere with the free acti<jn of the arms of those engaged 
in doing the work. More or less current in the water is 
distinctly helpful, as it floats away the dirt removed from 
the fleece. 

When sheep are washed beneath a waterfall, the 
requisites are about the same as when they are washed in 
a stream or lake, except that a depth of water such as will 
float the sheep is not so necessary. They are led out un- 
der the falling water, and the dirt in the wool, when it is 
properly manipulated, is quickly carried away. Years 
ago so important was it considered to have a good place 
for washing sheep that running streams were sometimes 
dammed for no other purpose than to furnish a waterfall 
adapted to such a use. 

Handling sheep when washing or shearing them — 
The necessity for handling sheep with gentleness while 
washing and shearing them should never be forgotten. 
The sheep is a timid animal and is easily injured by rough 
handling. When the wool is the only medium used in 
handling sheep, they will invariably sufifer injury at the 
hands of those who handle them. When grasped by the 
wool they invariably struggle to get away. The measure 
of the struggling is the timidity of the sheep, the extent 
to which they have been accustomed to handling and 
the roughness or gentleness of the handling. When sheep 
are grasped by the wool and struggle to get away, and 
are then slaughtered and the skin removed, the inner side 
of the skin underneath where the wool was grasped will 
be reddened with the blood that has centered in blood 
vessels there. Its presence bears testimony to the extent 
of the injury done. 

Sheep may be most readily caught by the aid of a 
crook. This means a rod of several feet in width, a pieceT"^^^^ 
of metal attached to the farther end. which is bent back- 
wards so as to form a crook. When used in catching 
sheep it is thrust forward and quickly drawn backward 
so as to catch a leg, usually a hind leg, within the crook. 



a, n 



294 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

This renders the sheep powerless to get away until it can 
be grasped by the hand. Long practice will make the 
shepherd very dexterous in using this aid in catching 
sheep. Its use is now mainly confined to large flocks. 

When the attempt is made to catch sheep by hand 
within an inclosure, a number of them, and in some in- 
stances all the flock, will rush into a corner. The person 
who is seeking out one of them should follow, keeping his 
eye closely on the sheep that is to be caught. He then 
rushes forward and grasps it by placing one hand under- 
neath the neck at the throat or in front of the breast and 
the other hand at the tailhead or buttock. The sheep is 
then in his power should it struggle to move forward or 
backward. In some instances the sheep is grasped at 
first by the hind leg with one hand, and held until the free 
hand, which is usually the left one, is reached forward in 
front of the breast of the sheep. Should a sheep be 
grasped by the wool over the hips it will lunge forward 
to get away, and this will result in injur}^ to the part thus 
grasped. 

When holding sheep, especially those that are restless 
or refractory, they should be held by placing one hand, 
usually the left one, so as to grasp the jaw underneath 
and well forward. The fingers or some of them are 
pushed upward into the soft parts underneath the tongue, 
the thumb remaining on the outside of the jaw. The 
right hand is thus left free to use as occasion may call 
for. With the left hand thus placed and the right hand 
at the tailhead, a refractory sheep may be moved forward 
should this be desired. The parts underneath the jaw 
are sensitive, hence the pressure of the fingers there 
should never be more than occasion calls for. 

Sheep may be taught to lead the same as other ani- 
mals. This is usually necessary only in the case of rams, 
more especially such of them as are to be shown. They 
will submit readily to such teachings, but it is most efifec- 
tive when they are thus taught while young. Out on the 



WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 295 

range nearly all the handling of sheep, or rather the man- 
agement of the same, is done by the aid of dogs. The 
expertness to which dogs may be trained in thus render- 
ing aid would seem in some instances to be almost more 
than such as results from mere animal sagacity. 

When sheep are being washed rough handling should 
be most carefully avoided. This should apply to the 
hq,ndling, not only while the sheep are being put into the 
water, but also while in the water and while being led 
out of the same. The greatest hazard occurs while the 
sheep are being led into the water. They strenuously re- 
sist being put into it. Then it is that they are most in 
danger of being harmed. They should be brought for- 
ward, as described above, to the water's edge. In the 
same way the washer leads them forward until the water 
is beyond their depth. To drag them forward by grasp- 
ing the wool above the shoulders, their feet being in- 
stinctively braced against such dragging, is simply cruel. 

When the sheep are beyond their depth, the danger 
from harm for the time being is practically over. They 
are then virtually powerless in the hands of the washer. 
The wool virtually floats them. The washer grasps the 
wool between his hands and presses it together. This he 
continues to do until the water is no more discolored as 
the result of such squeezing. He goes over the whole 
surface of the body in this way. In his hands the sheep 
may be readily turned so as to bring the wool on any part 
of the body within easy reach of the hands of the washer. 
It is scarcely necessary to add that no sheep should pass 
the washer's hands until its fleece is thoroughly cleansed. 

When the washing is completed, it may answer in 
some instances, as when the sheep are young and strong 
and the shore is firm and clean, to head them in the direc- 
tion of the landing place and to allow them to swim 
ashore unattended. The sight of the sheep grazing that 
have been washed will cause them to try and reach them. 
But should the sheep be old or feeble and the landing 



296 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

place not all that could be desired, the washer should 
accompany them until they are entirely out of the water. 
It may be necessary for him to hold them for a few sec- 
onds, as should they attempt to walk at once the weight 
of water in the fleece may cause them to fall. 

Tagging sheep when washed — Tagging means re- 
moving from the sheep wool that may have become so 
mixed with excrement that it hangs in clots around the 
buttock, especially that portion of it around and under- 
neath the tail. This condition results from a laxness of 
the bowels, usually caused by feeding too freely on succu- 
lent grasses while these are yet soft and full of succulence. 
Merinos, and especially the lambs subsequently to wean- 
ing, are much liable to injury from soiling with urine in 
hot weather in both males and females. These condi- 
tions, if allowed to increase assume in some instances an 
aggravated form, insomuch that the wool covering the 
buttock, or soiled by urine, becomes a mass of filth, in 
which maggots may breed. This may be prevented, in 
part at least, by cutting off the locks of wool thus con- 
taminated as soon as such contamination appears. If this 
has not been given attention sooner, it should be done in 
the inclosure from which the sheep are taken to be 
washed. The better plan, however, is to remove the locks 
of wool thus contaminated as soon as such soiling of the 
wool is noticed. This will aid much in preventing the 
soiling of the wool adjacent. An old pair of shears, well 
sharpened, may be advantageously used in removing the 
soiled locks of wool. But tagging also refers to the re- 
moval of locks that may have been loosened from some 
cause from the surface of the body, and which, if not re- 
moved, will ultimately fall off and be lost. 

As already intimated, the best time to begin the 
tagging is as soon as it appears. It may be necessary to 
repeat the tagging should additional soiling occur. When 
aggravated and prolonged, the better plan would be to 
confine the sheep and put them on a dry diet until the 



WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 297 

purging is arrested. When tagging is done at the wash- 
ing season, additional help will be called for, so as to avoid 
delay in delivering the sheep to the washers. 

The tags thus obtained may be so incorporated with 
filth as to be practically worthless. In other instances it 
may prove profitable to remove the filth and sell the tags. 
The filth may be removed by soaking the tags for a time 
sufficiently long to soften the manure adhering to them, 
and to dissolve it so that it can be removed by one or 
more washings. Soap will, of course, aid in the dissolv- 
ing and cleansing process. The price paid for such will, 
of coarse, be lower than for other wool. 

Sheep between washing and shearing — The interval 
between washing and shearing will be influenced to some 
extent by the character of the weather. If the weather 
is dry and bright, one week should suffice between the 
time of washing and shearing. Under other conditions, 
it may be necessary to defer the shearing so as to cover 
an interval considerably longer. The interval between 
washing and shearing should not be unduly prolonged, 
lest the wool should become more or less filled with for- 
eign substances. This would, of course, so far detract 
from the benefit resulting from washing. 

The objects in thus deferring the shearing for several 
days subsequent to the washing, are, first, to allow the 
fleece to dry, and, second, to give time for the yolk to ex- 
tend to the tips of the wool fiber. This will add greatly 
to the luster of the wool. Should the wool be shorn while 
yet overmoist, the labor of shearing is less pleasant, and 
the hazard is incurred that injury will come to the wool 
through the excess of moisture which it contains. More 
or less mold would result, and also discoloration, which 
would proportionately discount the price. 

Between the period of washing and shearing, the 
sheep should be grazed on clean pastures, otherwise the 
benefit from washing the fleece may be much neutralized. 
In newly settled areas, where logs that have been charred 



298 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

abound in the pastures, the newly washed sheep may rub 
against these, and so blacken the fleece externally. As 
the weather is usually more or less warm at the washing 
season, sheep are prone to lie down amid the dust on the 
highway and also on other bare ground to which they 
may have access. Because of this, the wisdom of keep- 
ing them away from such influences and indeed from all 
contaminating influences will at once be apparent. 

The time and place for shearing — The following are 
chief among the influences that bear upon the time of 
shearing: (i) The character of the climate; (2) the pro- 
tection that can be furnished to the sheep ; and (3) the 
object for which they are being kept. 

In mild latitudes sheep may, of course, be shorn pro- 
portionately earlier than in those that are cold, and in dry 
climates earlier than in those that are characterized by 
much rainfall. The necessity for early shearing is pres- 
ent in a much greater degree in warm climates, as when 
unshorn the sheep are burdened by the weight and heat 
of the fleece after the weather becomes warm. 

Where ample protection can be furnished for the 
sheep, should the weather turn cold after they are shorn, 
the time of shearing may be much advanced. When the 
protection is sufficient they may be shorn at any time 
during the winter, as for instance, when they are being 
prepared for exhibition, and the rules of the fairs where 
they are to be shown do not prohibit such early shearing. 
Sheep thus shorn may be retained most readily at even 
temperatures in a basement. When shorn early, it is, of 
course, necessary to keep the sheep in protected sheds 
during unpropitious weather. When exposed to temper- 
atures too low after the wool has been removed, the dis- 
comfort resulting is indicated by the humped attitude 
which the animal assumes. 

When sheep are to be shown, it is customary to shear 
them earlier than the normal season for shearing, unless 
the rules of the fairs at which they are shown prohibit 



WASHING AND SPIEARING SHEEP 299 

such shearing. When they are being fattened for spring 
sale, they may be shorn earlier than under other condi- 
tions. The heat induced by the fattening foods fed will 
result in much discomfort to the sheep, unless the wool 
is removed, and discomfort always hinders gains where 
it is present. 

When sheep are washed they cannot be shorn so 
early as when shorn unwashed, as the washing cannot be 
done in a large way until the water in which they are to 
be washed becomes warm. When shorn unwashed, the 
time of shearing may be advanced from five to eight weeks. 

If shorn unwashed, the ordinary flock may be shorn 
as early as April i in the northern states, where ample 
protection may be furnished to the shorn sheep. Usually, 
however, the shearing is deferred to a period a little later. 
The shearing is more frequently deferred to the middle 
of April, or even to the last half of the month, but it is 
done proportionately earlier in states that lie southward. 
W^hen the sheep are washed, they are seldom shorn in the 
northern states earlier than late May or early June. 

Sheep that are being fattened may usually be shorn 
with advantage fully two weeks earlier than sheep kept 
for breeding uses. The necessity for providing exercise 
for them is not present as it is with breeding flocks, hence 
after they are shorn they may be kept in the sheds all the 
time without harm should the weather conditions make 
such confinement advisable. 

In some instances sheep have been shorn twice a 
year; such shearing has usually been done in an experi- 
mental way. The increase has not been such as to justify 
such shearing, especially in northern areas. It would 
seem probable that such shearing would be distinctly ad- 
vantageous in warm areas, as, for instance, the southern 
states, but this problem does not seem to have been fully 
worked out there. The season for the first shearing would 
be early, probably as early as March 1st, and for the sec- 
ond shearing, about six months later. 



300 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Wherever sheep are shorn it should be under cover, 
to protect the shearers and also to protect the sheep, espe- 
cially when the shearing is done in warm weather. Then 
they should be housed in quarters adjacent to the shear- 
ing floor, so as to be convenient to the shearers. They 
should thus be penned in lots, sufficient to supply the 
shearers for the day, and they should be thus congregated 
when free from dew and rain. They should be kept in 
clean quarters, to prevent the soiling of their wool. When 
the shearing continues for successive days, much attention 
must be given to keeping the quarters clean, and the 
necessity for such watchfulness is greater when the sheep 
have been washed. 

When a small band of sheep has been washed, they 
may be readily penned for shearing in the end of a lane, 
(ireen grass will answer for a shearing floor, and a few 
boards extended across the corner or nook of the fences 
that come together there, will form a sufficient protection 
for the shearers. 

Methods of shearing sheep — Sheep are shorn by hand 
and by the aid of machinery. Machine shearing, which is 
of comparatively recent introduction, is destined to sup- 
plant hand shearing wherever shearing is to be done in a 
large way. It not only does the work more expeditiously, 
but it does better work and neater than is done by the 
average shearer, and when sheep are shorn in large lots, 
it is done more cheaply than when done with the shears. 
Two methods of hand shearing are followed. One of 
these is known as the long method and the other as the 
round method. 

When sheep are shorn by the long method, the 
shearer begins by removing the wool from the head. He 
then opens the wool on the throat and shears from the 
underline of the same to the top of the neck. This is con- 
tinued until a point is reached at or near the shoulder 
blade. The position of the sheep is then reversed, and the 
wool is then removed from the other side of the neck. A 



WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 3OI 

series of rings is thus made, extending from the head to 
the shoulder blade. The sheep is then laid on its side. 
The wool is then shorn from shoulder to buttock on one 
side. The cuts made are similar and parallel and of equal 
width. The sheep is then turned over and the wool is 
removed from the other side, shearing from buttock to 
stern. A good shearer keeps the shears gnawing, as it 
were, through the wool rather than making distinct cuts 
each time the shear handles are pressed toward each 
other. When the shears are thus used, the lines left are 
more evenly made and the hazard of cutting the skin is 
reduced. 

When the sheep are shorn by the round method, the 
animal is placed on its buttock. The wool is first removed 
from the brisket downward to the fore-flank. It is then 
shorn from right to left clear across the belly. The wool 
on the entire belly thus removed hangs on the left side of 
the fleece. The wool is then opened up on the under side 
of the neck, and beginning at the ears, the neck and body 
are shorn by running the shears around to the ridge of 
the topline. The sheep is then turned over and the right 
side is shorn in the same way. Each line made by the 
shears should be at right angles with the topline. Sheep 
thus shorn have a zebra-like appearance, which is very 
attractive. Fat sheep have a very neat appearance when 
shorn thus, but lean sheep look best when shorn by the 
long method. An expert shearer will never cut the wool 
twice, that is, he will not, even when shearing past the 
spinal column, point the shears so high that any of the 
wool will have to be clipped again. Clipping twice means 
waste of wool. 

When sheep are shorn by machinery, some kind of 
power is necessary to drive the clippers used when at 
work. When done in a large way, a long line of shaft- 
ing is put in place, so that many shearers may work simul- 
taneously along the line of the same. The power called 
for is not large in amount, compared with the work done. 




302 



WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 303 

Small machines are sometimes used for flocks on farms 
that are limited in numbers. These are sometimes worked 
by hand power, one person furnishing the power and an- 
other using the clippers. In some instances wind power 
is used, and also power obtained from tread mills. Where 
the power is furnished by hand, it is yet somewhat ques- 
tionable as to whether this method will come into general 
use. But where power is furnished from other sources, 
shearing machinery will doubtless almost entirely super- 
sede hand shearing. 

The following instructions in the use of the clippers 
will be found helpful : Place the sheep in an upright posi- 
tion and hold it tightly between the knees. When in 
position the shearer should be about one foot to the left 
of the long tube and about one foot in front of it. When 
shearing, always turn the sheep to the right, which should 
be done with the foot, rather than with the hand. When 
the sheep is in position, part the wool in front of the bris- 
ket and run the clippers down twice as far as the pit of 
the stomach. Put the front legs behind the arm at the 
shoulder, and make about four swaths or cuts down the 
right side between the fore and hind flanks. Then shear 
across the belly over to the left side, on a line between 
the shoulder and the flank. Keep the heel of the clipper 
elevated a little. Then trim out below the scrotum or 
udder, and cut the wool off the point of the tail. Place 
the left hand just above the stifle and press down so as to 
straighten out the right leg, and with inward strokes trim 
the inside of the leg. 

With the hand similarly placed above the stifle, with 
outward strokes trim the inside of the left leg. The 
shearer should then place his right foot between the hind 
legs of the sheep, leaving it well back of its rump against 
the left foot. With the left hand placed against the 
sheep's under jaw, the neck is straightened so that the 
back will be against the knee, and two swaths are cut 
along the right side of the neck. The side of the jaw is 



304 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

then turned against the knee, and the left side of the neck 
is trimmed, the cHppers running lengthwise of the neck back 
to its center and then to the top of the head. The sheep 
is then turned partly around and is in position to have the 
left shoulder shorn. Each stroke made should be to the 
center of the back, keeping the left hand on the skin above 
.the clippers to hold it in a stretched and smooth position. 
The left shoulder is now trimmed. The shearer should 
hold the sheep lightly in his hand, leaving it w^ell back 
and pressing his knees firmly against its brisket. With 
long, smooth and quick strokes the wool is removed from 
the side of the sheep. When the left hind leg and 
tail are trimmed, three or four swaths are run half way 
up the back, the shearer standing astride and holding the 
sheep firmly between the knees and putting the back in 
rainbow shape as far as practicable. The clippers are then 
run up the back and the head is trimmed, ^^'hen the left 
side of the neck is shorn, the sheep is set up straight, its 
left side being held tightly against the knees and the right 
jaw is then trimmed. The sheep's neck is then pressed 
down against its left side. Beginning at the under side 
of the right side of the neck, swaths should be run down 
to the shoulder, the clippers next working back on the 
top of the neck. The sheep's neck is then made to drop 
against the left side, the shearer placing his foot clear 
over out beyond the sheep's leg, its right front knee be- 
ing held down tightly under the same, and with inward 
strokes the shoulder and front leg are shorn. The sheep's 
head is then raised and the shearer's left leg is placed be- 
tween the sheep's legs, the sheep being held against the 
shearer while the other side and hind leg are shorn. The 
aim should be to hold the sheep in an easy position, and 
it will not struggle as it otherwise would. 

When sheep are shorn by hand they are in some in- 
stances placed on a shearing bench, but more commonly 
they are placed on a floor; when shorn by machinery they 
are always thus placed. When sheep are shorn in large 



WASHING AND SIIEARIXG SHEEP 305 

numbers by either method, each gang of shearers has its 
complement of helpers to catch the sheep and also to care 
for the wool when the fleece has been removed. The 
rapidity with which good shearers will remove the fleece 
is, in a sense, surprising. The fleece has been removed 
by hand in less than five minutes, and by machinery in 
less than two minutes. Owing to the closeness of the 
shearing with the clippers, the sheep are more susceptible 
to the influences of adverse weather subsequently. Con- 
sequently more care should be exercised in providing 
them with shelter from inclement weather. Such care 
has special significance when sheep are grazed on western 
ranges where fluctuations in temperature come suddenly 
and in some instances with much severity. 

What is known as stubble shearing is sometimes re- 
sorted to by those who exhibit sheep at the fairs. When 
sheep are thus shorn, a part of the growth of the wool is 
left on at the time of the shearing. The object is to add 
to the length of the staple. Usually about half of the 
fleece is then trimmed, so as to add to the attractiveness 
of the animal in the show ring. Stubble shearing is 
clearly dishonest when it contravenes any of the rules of 
the fair, and is of at least doubtful morality under any 
conditions, since it is intended to deceive. 

Handling the shorn fleece — In all instances the fleece 
should be trimmed before sorting, when such trimming is 
needed. By trimming is meant removing tags to which 
dried excrement adheres, and other substances foreign 
to the wool, as far as this may be possible. The tags will 
usually more than repay the cost of washing. This may 
be done by first soaking them in water as previously in- 
timated, and then washing them two or three times in 
warm soap suds. They should be sold apart from the 
other wool, and wool that has been pulled should be sim- 
ilarly sold. 

When the flock is small, the fleece may be prepared for 
marketing as follows : It is spread on a clean floor, with 



306 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

the outside upward. The two sides are then folded back so 
that they will meet in the center. The fleece is then rolled 
toward the neck as compactly as this can be done by hand. 
Then tie carefully with wool twine, using two or three 
strings. Twine that is heavier than is necessary is 
frowned upon by the buyers, and justly so, as they get no 
equivalent for the twine. 

The wool from large flocks may be prepared for the 
packing as follows : The fleece is spread on a table of suit- 
able height, and wool at the neck, tail and flanks is turned 
inwards, the sides meeting in the center, or even overlapping 
in some instances. It is then rolled into a neat roll and 
tied. The tying is much facilitated by placing the fleece 
in a box, sometimes made with hinged sides and ends. 
The strings used in tying are first put in place. Narrow 
saw cuts in the upper edges of the ends of the box aid in 
holding them in place until used. When folded and tied, 
the fleece should be neat, smooth and firm., and in shape 
resembling a lady's muff. 

When the market is not distant, the wool may be 
carried by conveyance, as in a wagon box or on a hay 
rack; otherwise it should be sacked. If not sacked at 
once, it should be stored in a wool room, proof against 
the ingress of rats or mice. For convenience in sacking 
it is preferably stored where there is room underneath 
for suspending the sacks. If stored on shelves easily 
accessible, the buyer can inspect it readily and with but 
little disturbance to the wool. The fact should not be 
overlooked that wool when stored will lose from one 
to three per cent of its weight, according to the method 
and time of storage and to the amount of the yolk. 

When sacking the wool the sack should be suspended 
underneath a trap door. When a few fleeces have been 
thrown in, a man descends and arranges them, and as 
they are handed down one by one, they are systematically 
placed in layers and the foot is put on the last fleece laid 
in place. When the sack is full it is raised with a lever 



WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 307 

underneath, the mouth being secured with clamps. The 
hoop is then removed, the sack lowered to the floor be- 
neath, and the opening is sewed up with twine. A piece 
of corn cob tied in each corner of the sack will facilitate 
handling. 

As a rule, the aim should be to sell the wool while yet 
on the farm or ranch. After it has gone to a storing house 
the grower is, in a sense, powerless to treat for terms, and 
must, therefore, virtually accept those proffered. It is a 
great matter when the reputation of the grower is such 
that he can sell his wool without inspection. 

Trimming the feet — Reference has already been 
made to this question (see page 282). The necessity for 
such trimming may arise from the following among other 
causes: (i) The splitting or breaking of the edges of the 
hoof, in some instances to the extent of reaching the quick 
in the foot, the resultant pain causing lameness ; (2) the 
turning under of the outer edges of the sole so as to in- 
crease the difficulty in walking; (3) soreness between the 
cleft portions of the hoof, usually spoken of as foul foot ; 
(4) foot rot in all its phases. 

The frequency with which the foot should be 
trimmed will be much influenced by the soil. Sheep graz- 
ing on hard flinty soils may call for but little attention 
of this nature. The hoofs usually wear sufficiently on 
such soils to keep them in shape. On soft soils trimming 
should take place once, and sometimes twice a year. Any 
indications of lameness should call for an examination of 
the feet. It is of special importance that the feet of show 
sheep should be well trimmed, otherwise they cannot 
have that ease of locomotion which they ought to have 
in the presence of a judge. The shearing season furnishes 
an opportune time for trimming the feet. 

The implements used in trimming the feet are a sharp 
knife and what is known as toe clippers or toe shears. 
The latter are used in clipping ofif the horny substance, 
especially at the toes. The sheep is placed on its buttock 



308 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

with its back to the operator; the left thumb is inserted 
between the hoofs, and the shears are used so as to cut 
from within. It may be necessary in some instances to 
put a board under the foot of the animal when standing 
and to cut back the toes with a chisel and mallet. The 
paring of the sole should be such as will give the foot a 
firm and even bearing when placed upon the ground. 
When the soreness referred to appears, it should be given 
prompt attention, lest it should lead to increased trouble, 
Finely powdered bluestone has proved an efficient rem- 
edy. Trimming for foot rot is discussed elsewhere (see 
page 415). 



CHAPTER XV 
PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 

In discussing this question the following phases of the 
subject are considered: (i) Sheep with and without wa- 
ter; (2) Providing water for sheep in summer; (3) Pro- 
viding water for sheep in winter; (4) Water and good 
health in sheep; (5) The necessity for feeding salt; (6) 
Supplying sheep with salt in summer; and (7) Supplying 
sheep with salt in winter. 

In many instances the attention given to supplying 
these is wholly inadequate to the needs of the sheep, 
hence the amount of space given to the discussion at this 
time. 

Sheep with and without water — The views cherished 
by many with reference to the amount of water called for 
by sheep are very erroneous. The view is frequently held 
that sheep do not need water when on pasture. This view 
is based on the fact that instances are numerous in cer- 
tain areas in which sheep have maintained a good con- 
dition as to thrift when grazing where no water had been 
provided. Where such a result has followed, however, 
the pastures have been at least fairly succulent and the 
dews have been copious. From these sources the sheep 
were able to obtain sufficient water to produce the re- 
sults noted. There are other conditions, however, where 
such provision would be wholly inadequate, such as the 
range country when the grasses become dry and the dews 
fail to come. Sheep may be able to maintain life under 
such conditions, but they are not able to make that thrift 
that they ought to make and would make if plentifully 
supplied with water. Sheep may not need water in sum- 
mer under the following conditions: (i) When the 
grasses are sufficiently succulent to furnish the sheep 



310 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

with all the water that they need. In moist climates they 
are frequently found in such a condition through all the 
spring- and early summer and again in the autumn ; in 
some instances through the whole of the same, and in 
others only in the late autumn. But even in moist 
climates, during a part of the summer, the grass alone 
will not furnish water adequate to the needs of the sheep. 
(2) Where the grasses supplemented by the dews fur- 
nish a sufficient supply of water, though neither of these 
sources alone would furnish an ample supply. But the 
influences that produce succulent food also favor copious 
dews, hence when succulence in the food fails beyond a 
certain degree, the dews shrink also, hence in the heat of 
summer both of these sources taken together are really 
inadequate to furnish the sheep with all the water that 
they need. (3) When sheep are feeding on supplemen- 
tary foods, such as rape, which contains so much succu- 
lence that water is not necessary. It would not be safe 
to assume, however, that sheep will not profit from ac- 
cess to water when feeding on rape. The degree of the 
succulence found in rape varies much with the climatic 
conditions under which it is grown. The consumption 
of water and consequently the need for the same increases 
with increase in the summer heat. Sheep will unques- 
tionably profit from access to water in summer, when 
they will drink it in any considerable quantities. To de- 
prive them of water when on dry pastures is simply cruel, 
and the results from such deprivation are intensified as 
the weather waxes warmer. 

Sheep may not need water in winter when they are 
given large quantities of succulent food, as, for instance, 
field roots. This may hold good though they are given 
a fattening ration. But in practice they are seldom given 
enough roots to preclude the necessity for giving water. 
The necessity for supplying water increases : (i) With the 
closeness of the confinement ; (2) with the stimulating 
character of the food fed; and (3) with the extent to 



PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 3II 

which support is called for by lambs that may be nursing 
their dams. When the confinement is close, the sheep 
have not the same opportunity to eat snow as they do 
sometimes in order to relieve their thirst. 

Under forced feeding sheep will take much more wa- 
ter than under ordinary feeding. The stimulating char- 
acter of the food creates heat in the system, and this 
proportionately increases the demand for water. When 
ewes are nursing their lambs, they cannot adequately sup- 
ply them with milk without being themselves abundantly 
supplied with water, directly or indirectly, through the 
succulence that is fed. 

Providing water for sheep in summer — The sources 
from which water for sheep is obtained in summer are : 
(i) The grazing; (2) dews; (3) streams; (4) wells; and 
(5) ponds. Grazing and dews as sources of water sup- 
ply have already been considered. Where the supply is 
insufficient from these sources, it must be obtained from 
one of the other sources mentioned. 

Usually water furnished by streams in the pastures 
is very suitable to the needs of sheep. Streams with cur- 
rent all the way as they flow through the pastures are 
eminently suitable, and the same is true of rivulets fed 
by perennial springs. But should the waters spread out 
betimes on level stretches, where they become stagnant 
or nearly so, the grasses that grow in such places may 
harbor therein the seeds of death in the parasites that 
usually infest such places. Water obtained from wells 
is well adapted to the needs of the sheep as a rule, al- 
though to this there may be some exceptions, as when it 
is impregnated with substances that are not relished by 
the sheep, or that may be positively harmful to them be- 
cause of the substances which it contains. 

Usually, however, water obtained from wells is about 
on a par in quality with that obtained from springs. It 
is usually pumped up by windmills, so regulated that they 
operate only when water may be needed. The troughs 



312 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

in which it is furnished must be so low as to be of easy 
access to the sheep, and care must be taken to prevent 
them from becoming surrounded with wet or muddy 
ground, a condition which is instinctively avoided by 
sheep. 

Water obtained from ponds is usually the least suited 
to the needs of sheep, unless it be water that is furnished 
by marshy lands. Such water is objectionable because of 
the impurities which it may contain. The conditions for 
generating these are favored by the stagnant condition 
of the waters. Supplying sheep with water from such a 
source should be avoided where this is practicable, and 
yet there may be instances in which water from this 
source is not really harmful. Such instances are some- 
times found on elevated upland ranges, when the purity 
of the air guards the water from impurities such as would 
be generated under conditions the opposite. 

Proximity to water in the grazing grounds is highly 
advantageous to the well-being of the sheep. When they 
have to travel a long distance in warm weather to obtain 
water supplies, they will not thrive as they would when 
the opposite conditions prevail. Where the pastures are 
large, the aim should be to have water supplied in various 
parts of the same. 

Providing water for sheep in winter — Water obtained 
from brooks and ponds does not meet the needs of sheep 
in winter as it does the needs of other animals. They 
are naturally timid and shrink from drinking where the 
slightest physical hazard is present. If ice should be 
found on the shores of a stream, sheep will not approach 
it, nor can they be taught to drink from openings made in 
a pond. Rather than take water under such conditions 
they will eat snow, and in the absence of snow will go 
without drinking. 

Water obtained from wells and cisterns is much more 
suitable, because it is so much more readily accessible to 
the sheep. But when furnished from these sources, it 



PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 313 

should be made readily accessible to them in order that 
their needs in this respect may be fully met. Water sup- 
plied for sheep is not warmed as it is in many instances 
for cattle. It has not yet been demonstrated that warm- 
ing the water for sheep will repay the cost. 

While some classes of sheep may do with much less 
water than others in winter, no class of sheep should be 
denied access to it for a single day. The claim that snow 
will prove a sufficient source of water is untenable. 
Sheep will eat clean snow to relieve their thirst when wa- 
ter can be obtained from no other source, but they will 
not eat enough to supply their needs. Water obtained 
from this source is unduly cold. Sheep may exist under 
these conditions, but they will not thrive as they should. 

Ewes nursing lambs call for much water, and the 
more highly that they are fed grain the greater is their 
need for plentiful supplies of water, in the absence of field 
roots. Without an abundant supply of water they cannot 
furnish a full supply of milk for their lambs. The amount 
of water that ewes thus fed will take will surprise those 
not accustomed to such feeding. 

Sheep that are being fattened also call for more water 
than sheep that are being simply carried through the win- 
ter. The large amount of grain food that is fed to them 
generates thirst, and the greater the degree of the concen- 
tration the greater will be the thirst. No class of sheep 
or sheep under no conditions will consume more water 
than those that are being thus fattened. These should not 
only have access to water, but they should have access 
to it at will. The attempts to fatten them in the absence 
of an ample supply of water cannot be in the highest 
sense successful. 

Water should be made easily accessible to sheep. If 
supplied in the yards or sheds, they will drink when they 
would not do so if required to go outside of the yard to 
take water. It cannot be supplied to the ordinary flock 
in better form than when supplied to them in tubs in the 



314 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

pens, which may be readily overturned, to free them from 
water in freezing weather, after the sheep have been sup- 
plied for the day. The water thus needed may be re- 
plenished from pails for small lots of sheep and from a 
hose for a larger lot. For sheep that are being fattened 
in a wholesale way, water may be furnished in a trough 
or tub provided with a float. 

Water and good health in sheep — The relation be- 
tween good health and the character of the water given to 
them is of the most intimate nature. No class of animals 
kept upon the farm is so much subject to parasitical dis- 
eases as sheep, and water is the medium through which 
some of these reach them. The importance, therefore, of 
furnishing pure water for sheep cannot be easily overesti- 
mated. Cattle and swine may be able in some instances 
to drink water without apparent injury that would be 
baneful to sheep. 

Water furnished by ponds is objectionable. It is ob- 
jectionable because it is stagnant, and stagnant water is 
more favorable to the breeding of harmful forms of para- 
sitic life than water from running streams or wells. It 
is further objectionable because when long stagnant it 
loses something of its sweetness. Sheep are peculiarly 
sensitive to such changes. They will not drink water 
affected with any form of taint unless compelled to do so 
from thirst that must be partially relieved. In cool 
climates and under elevated conditions, water from ponds 
is much less objectionable than water furnished under 
conditions the opposite. 

Water furnished from marshy lands is much more 
objectionable even than water obtained from ponds. The 
relation between access to such water on the part of the 
sheep and parasitical diseases, such as tapeworm and 
stomach worm, has been forced upon flockmasters in too 
many instances to leave any doubt as to the reality and 
potency of such a relation. How far the parasites come 
from such waters directly or from the grasses eaten by 



PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 315 

the sheep which grow up in such waters or on their mar- 
gins has not yet been determined. There can be no 
doubt, however, about the relation that exists between 
ill doing in the sheep and grazing in areas where access 
is had to marshy lands. Because of this, the aim should 
be to drain such lands in sheep pastures that are at all 
permanent in character, or to so fence them where drain- 
ing is impracticable that the sheep will not have access 
to them. 

Water contaminated by yard seepage is harmful to 
sheep. It is harmful because of the taint which character- 
izes it and which because of its presence, hinders the 
sheep from drinking it freely. But it is further harmful 
because of the impurities which it contains. These are 
adverse to well doing in sheep. But most of all it is 
harmful because of the presence of the various forms of 
parasitic life which, in the germ, it may contain. It is 
now believed that nodule disease (see page 400) and other 
diseases may be communicated in such water. Every care 
should be exercised to prevent sheep from drinking it. 

The necessity for feeding salt — The necessity for fur- 
nishing salt to sheep is always present, save in certain 
areas in proximity to the sea. The salt that falls on the 
herbage from the rain which has its source in the adjacent 
sea is in some instances a sufficient source of supply. 
That sheep inherently crave salt cannot be questioned. 
This fact is abundantly proved by the eagerness with 
which they consume it after having been deprived of it 
for any length of time. It is to be expected, therefore, 
that where salt is not regularly supplied to the sheep and 
in quantity sufficient to meet their needs that they will 
not thrive as they would if sufficiently supplied with salt. 

Salt is not a food in the sense that hay or grain is. 
It does not furnish nutrients. Its mission is that of exer- 
cising a favorable influence on digestion. This influence 
is exercised in various ways. It stimulates certain of the 
functions pertaining to digestion into more complete ab- 



3l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

sorption into the system of the nutrients in the food in 
the process of assimilation. It acts as a corrective to 
digestion overlax which results from feeding large quan- 
tities of succulent food. It may also be made to increase 
the consumption of food when judiciously added to the 
same. As a result of this, increase in form or function 
should result proportionately. 

With the exception given above (see page 315), the 
necessity for supplying animals with salt is always pres- 
ent and at all seasons. The effect of rain containing saline 
influences does not extend very far inland. Hence the 
areas thus affected are relatively limited. Even quadru- 
peds not under domestication show a fondness for salt in 
the extent to which they have frequented locations where 
nature furnishes salt in the region of salt lakes. This 
craving is intensified in animals under domestication by 
the large quantities of food furnished to them in an artifi- 
cial way. 

The aim should be to give animals under domestica- 
tion access to salt at all times. They will then take no 
more than they need, and only in such quantities as they 
need it. It is virtually impossible in any other way to 
meet the exact needs of the animals. This will be appar- 
ent, first, from the fact that no two animals will take the 
same quantity of salt though kept under conditions prac- 
tically alike, any more than they will take exactly similar 
quantities of food when kept under like conditions. Sec- 
ond, the different foods fed influence the requirements of 
salt, and no one is able to measure the extent of this in- 
fluence exactly. Third, the changed character of the 
ration continually exercises an influence on the consump- 
tion of salt, and no one can measure the extent of this in- 
fluence as the animal can. Give sheep free access to salt, 
and they will neither take too much nor too little. 

Supplying salt in summer — Salt is sometimes fur- 
nished to sheep, more especially in summer, in the form of 
rock salt. The objection to supplying it in this form is, 



PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 317 

that the sheep will not take enough to fully supply their 
needs. The better way is to keep a supply of common 
salt constantly accessible to them in the pastures. It is 
best supplied in a trough or troughs, covered so as to keep 
it where rain cannot fall upon it, as in the event of rain 
falling upon it much of it would dissolve and thus be lost. 
The trough or troughs in which it is kept should be placed 
near the watering troughs, as the sheep are more prone 
to congregate around these places than in other parts of 
the pasture. The recommendation to distribute salt 
around harmful plants is of doubtful value. The object 
sought is to kill the plants through the adverse influence 
of the salt on growth and the close cropping that follows 
from the sheep. The results from such application are 
seldom commensurate with the outlay. 

In very many instances salt is supplied to sheep on 
pastures only at intervals. The shepherd visits the flock, 
calls the sheep around him and places the salt in small 
piles on the ground. The craving of the sheep for the 
salt is shown by the eagerness with which the sheep con- 
sume it. But when thus supplied, they consume too large 
quantities at once, hence the benefits from taking the salt 
are in a sense neutralized. In fact, the consumption of 
large quantities of salt at one time may be positively in- 
jurious through the excessive drinking of water that fol- 
lows and the disturbance which such a condition creates. 

The need for salt increases with increase in succu- 
lence in the pastures on which sheep graze. Succulent 
grazing tends to relax the bowels, and to such an extent 
in some instances, as to lead to purging, if the condition 
is not corrected. Salt, it is believed, acts so far as a cor- 
rective, hence the necessity for having it plentifully sup- 
plied to sheep thus grazed. While it is important that 
sheep shall be thus supplied with salt on all kinds of 
grazing that is succulent, it is of special importance that 
they shall be thus supplied when grazing on rape, owing 
to the large quantities of that plant which they consume. 



3l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Supplying salt in winter — As in summer, salt should 
also be made constantly accessible to sheep in winter. It 
is best supplied to them in boxes under the cover of the 
sheds. 

In very cold weather it is better to supply it in mod- 
erate quantities frequently renewed than in large quanti- 
ties seldom renewed, as when supplied in large quantities 
it does not remain so fresh and clean, and it incrusts more 
or less from the congealing of the moisture left upon it 
while the sheep are taking it. 

Salt is sometimes given in the food. When thus sup- 
plied it certainly does add to the relish with which the 
food is eaten, but to supplying it thus there is the strong 
objection that it cannot be known just how much should 
be supplied. There is the further objection that such 
a method of supplying salt involves more labor. To de- 
prive sheep of salt either winter or summer will certainly 
hinder their thrift, and to apply it only at intervals in the 
winter is open to the same objection as supplying it thus 
in summer. 

When succulent food is fed in winter, the craving for 
salt increases with increase in the succulence given. This 
applies to succulence in whatsoever form it may be fed. 
This, however, is not relatively so important as in sum- 
mer, as the succulent food eaten at that season is more 
succulent than the food fed in winter. It is also believed 
that the consumption of salt increases with the forced 
character of the feeding. 



CHAPTER XVI 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 

In Chapter XVI the discussion will consider the fol- 
lowing items: (i) The shelter called for in winter; (2) 
The shelter called for in summer; (3) Considerations in 
locating a sheep shed; (4) Shelter that is not costly; (5) 
The more essential features of a permanent sheep house ; 
(6) A building, oblong and not too wide; (7) A structure 
of two stories; (8) Facilities for convenient feeding; (9) 
Divisions in the lower story; (10) Warm lambing pens; 
(11) Facilities for watering; (12) Sunlight, yard room 
and paddocks; (13) Ventilation without drafts; and (14) 
Plans of sheep houses. 

The shelter called for in winter — The protection 
called for by sheep in winter should be such as to shield 
them: (i) From falling storms; (2) from winds; and (3) 
from dampness. When given -such protection and an am- 
ple supply of nutritious and palatable food, they are not 
much liable to be harmed by low temperatures. 

The most important item of protection is that which 
shields them from falling storms, and especially from the 
cold storms of rain and sleet, such as fall in winter in cer- 
tain latitudes. Dry snow is but little harmful to sheep 
when it falls upon them, save when it is accompanied by 
a driving wind, such as will force it into any openings 
that may be present in the fleece. Exposure to cold rain 
and sleet, especially when prolonged and when the pre- 
cipitation is copious, is always more or less harmful, and 
in some instances the toll of loss taken from the open 
wool breeds under such exposure may be severe. The 
rain, penetrating to the skin, more especially along the 
line of the back, may give rise to inflammations that result 

319 



320 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

disastrously. The fine wool breeds, especially those of 
the Merino types, will be harmed much less by such ex- 
posure than the breeds possessed of longer and more open 
wool. But for any class of sheep, shed protection should 
be provided to shield them from such storms where they 
are liable to occur. Especially should the flock be guarded 
at those seasons when such storms are liable to occur 
suddenly. Slow drizzling rain may do but little harm, 
even though prolonged, as the natural heat of the body 
is suf^cient to ward off any harmful influences from such 
exposure. 

Protection from the sweep of cold winds is also 
greatly important. In prairie areas the necessity for such 
protection is greater than the necessity for protection 
from cold rains. The latter occur but seldom on the west- 
ern prairies, especially in the autumn, whereas the former 
blow with much constancy during the winter season. 
Such exposure is a disturbing influence, and most of all 
in the night, because the flock is at rest. When at lib- 
erty to choose their own protection, they will invariably 
seek a sheltered place protected from cold winds when 
taking their rest. The winds are especially disturbing to 
the sheep with long and open wool. By lifting portions 
of the fleece the cold wind reaches the body. In the case 
of driving snow storms the influences are still more harmful. 

Protection from dampness is especially needed when 
the sheep are in winter quarters. It is less needed in 
climates where the cold is continuous from autumn until 
spring. But even in these, should the sheep be sheltered 
by leaky straw roofs, rain and melted snow may soon 
bring about a condition in the dampness of the bedding 
underneath that is inimical to the health of the sheep. 
In climates with much rain in winter care should be taken 
to renew the bedding in the sheds and yards sufficiently 
often to keep them free from dampness. A damp bed 
tends to induce rheumatic troubles and various other ail- 
ments that may prove peculiarly harmful to the flock. 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 32 1 

Sheep do not suffer readily from cold when the con- 
ditions maintained above are all present. Give them the 
choice of lying on a dry bed beneath the canopy of the sky 
in the one instance and beneath an open or a nearly closed 
shed in the other, and they wall frequently prefer the 
former even when the temperatures may be very low ; 
and it is better for them thus to rest than if confined in 
a w^arm shed. 

The shelter called for in summer — In summer sheep 
should be protected: (i) From cold rains; (2) from ex- 
cessive sunshine ; and (3) from flies. It may not be easy 
or possible to provide such protection on the open range, 
but on the arable farm it should be quite feasible under 
average conditions. 

In the early summer in northern latitudes cold rains 
fall occasionally and in some instances they are prolonged, 
covering two to three days at a time. Farther south such 
rains come earlier. These are especially harmful to open- 
wool sheep, and they are more harmful to them when 
newly shorn than previously. Most of all are they harm- 
ful to lambs, and in proportion as they are young. Even 
though active disease, as inflammation, should not follow, 
the setback to thrift in the sheep and to growth in the 
lambs will call for some time to make good the harm 
done. At such times the flock should be quickly trans- 
ferred to winter quarters and fed on food provided and 
reserved for such an emergency. On the open range the 
shepherd should aim to have the flock not too distant 
from winter shelter, should indications of coming storm 
be present. 

Protection from excessive sunshine is increasingly 
important as the latitude lessens. On the open range it 
is less important because of the breezes that are almost 
continually present during the heat of the day. Such pro- 
tection on the arable farm may be furnished, first, 
through the shade of trees, and second, through ventilated 
and darkened sheds. The trees may be isolated and grow- 



322 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ing singly, or they may be grown in groups to provide 
such shade. On the prairie quick-growing trees should 
be planted to provide such shade on the arable farm, and 
preferably in groves. Where there is a natural growth 
of trees fringing a stream that runs through the pastures, 
the shade conditions are ideal, with reference at least to 
protection from sunshine. Where the pastures merge 
into forest, the shade conditions are also excellent, but in 
such instances any considerable growth of young trees 
will be prevented. When shade is provided by a venti- 
lated shed or basement, especially the latter, it brings 
more of coolness with it. 

Sheep during the warmest weather are very liable 
to be greatly disturbed by flies. A dense forest shade 
may furnish some protection, as flies are much less liable 
to be frequent where the shadows are dark than when 
bright sunshine is present. When sheep may have free 
access during the heat of the day to a darkened and ven- 
tilated basement, the conditions are ideal for protection 
from flies. Ventilation may be furnished by having the 
windows open and sufficient darkness may be secured by 
covering them with some very coarse cloth, as sacking 
material. A fringed piece should hang down over the 
place of entrance. The sheep will soon learn to push 
through this, and when doing so the frayed material will 
brush back the flies. A flock will soon learn to come for 
such protection daily when they may have access to it. 

Considerations in locating a sheep shed — When locat- 
ing a sheep shed the aim should be: (i) To place it on 
ground dry and porous ; (2) to insure protection on the 
windward side ; and (3) to secure ample room for yards 
and paddocks. Natural conditions when all are favorable 
will add greatly to the ease with which such a location 
may be secured, and the lack of these will add equally 
to the difficulty of locating the same. 

It is greatly important that the sheep sheds should 
be located on ground dry and porous. Locating on 



SHELTER lOR SHEEP SUMMER AMD WINTER 323 

ground naturally clamp and without facilities for drainage 
would result in muddy surroundings, and these would 
soon bring disaster to the flock. For such a location a 
sandy soil is much preferable to a clay soil, but very fre- 
quently it may not be possible to secure such a soil. 
Where the soil is clay the aim should be to have the 
ground slope away more or less from the sheds in as 
many directions as it may be possible to secure. This 
would be much preferable to placing the shed on clay 
land so level and damp that underdrainage would be nec- 
essary to remove the excess of water. In some areas of 
the prairie it may not be easy to secure a suitable site, but 
in such areas it is questionable if sheep can be made to 
prosper. Where the soil and subsoil are both sandy the 
conditions may not be objectionable, even though the 
ground is level. But under any conditions, the aim should 
be to secure something of a rise on which to erect the 
sheds. 

Protection from cold winds, especially on the wind- 
ward side, is much influenced by natural conditions. 
Where the sheds may be located on the leeward side of a 
natural or artificial grove, it may be secured with but little 
additional outlay. When the grove is sufficiently dense 
and the bluff is sufficiently high, the protection from wind 
is so far very complete. It is even more complete when 
the land on the sides of the bluff and below it is covered 
with trees. In such instances the paddocks, but not neces- 
sarily the yards, will be restricted to the leeward side of 
the sheds. 

Protection from winds is very frequently more diffi- 
cult and costly to secure than protection in other areas. 
This is especially true when the country is bare of trees, 
and when because of the dry conditions it may not be 
easy to grow them. But in such areas bluff conditions 
beside the streams such as those referred to above, are not 
in all instances infrequent, and they have the further ad- 
vantage of being near to a living water supply. Where 



324 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

no natural protection is present, a grove of considerable 
depth should be planted on the windward side. It should 
be given sufficient cultivation on and near the surface to 
keep it clean, until what are termed forest conditions may 
be secured. Such a grove properly cared for will begin 
to furnish protection three years from the time of plant- 
ing, and in six years the protection should be very ma- 
terial. In such locations it may be necessary from the 
outset to protect the yards, at least on the sunny side of 
the building, by surrounding them with a board fence 
sufficiently high to break the force of the wind. In some 
instances sheds of fodder or bedding may be so built as 
to render some aid in furnishing such protection. 

In areas where the temperatures are mild and the 
winds are but little constant or violent, yards and pad- 
docks may be secured virtually on all sides of the shed, 
should this be desired. But where the shed is planted 
close up against a grove or bluff, on one side only can 
paddocks be secured ; that is, in front of the shed and 
possibly in some instances at one end. Where the flock 
contains many animals, it will be found a great conven- 
ience to have several of these on hand. They furnish graz 
ing in summer for small lots, as stock rams, for instance, 
should it be desired to keep them apart from the main 
flock, or they may be made to furnish soiling food, near at 
hand for autumn feeding. In winter when not too much 
wind-swept, they furnish a good place in which to strew 
corn or other fodders, where the sheep may get some ex- 
ercise while picking it over. For the plan of yards and 
paddocks see page 338. 

Shelter that is not costly — Where small flocks of 
sheep are kept, and in areas where the ordinary building 
materials are costly, shelter sufficient to answer the pur- 
pose may be made from cheap materials. These include 
sheds made: (i) Of poles and straw; (2) of baled straw; 
and (3) of logs or sods. 

A shed made of poles and straw is best adapted to a 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 325 

country with but a limited amount of precipitation in win- 
ter. Such a structure is ill-adapted to a climate with 
heavy precipitation in winter owing to the difficulty of 
preventing leaking in the early spring. It may be con- 
structed of almost any kind of poles that may be obtain- 
able. In western areas these are usually cottonwood or 
poplar that may be cut by the streams. They are built 
up in the form of a square, or at least of a pen of three 
sides. If built as a square a doorway must be cut open 
in the front side, or the poles on that side should not 
come within 3 or 4 feet of the ground. The structure 
should be 7 or 8 feet high. Strong poles should be laid 
across the top rails to support the straw roof. When the 
poles have been put in place, a heavy covering of straw 
is built all around the structure, save on the front side. 
The straw above should be built so as to shed water, as 
far as this may be attainable. Such a covering may usu- 
ally be most cheaply provided at the season of threshing. 
It may shelter a small flock quite satisfactorily as long as 
water does not percolate down through the roof. 

The building of sheep sheds by using baled straw 
has been advocated in the press and on institute plat- 
forms, more especially in areas where the winters are cold 
and straw is so abundant that it is usually burned to get 
it out of the way of the husbandman. Thus it is that 
straw is disposed of more commonly in the Northwestern 
states and the western provinces of Canada. This method 
of providing shelter for sheep and for cattle in such areas 
would seem to be not only feasible but commendable. 
Notwithstanding, the sheds that have been constructed of 
this material are very few. This, however, does not prove 
that these would be undesirable to the keeper of live 
stock. But few sheep are kept as yet in the grain- 
growing areas of the prairie, hence the need for such shel- 
ter has not been an important question. Sheds made of 
baled straw are furnished with a roof of rafters covered 
by boards with battens over the cracks or other rain- 



326 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

resisting material. Roofs with but one slope are, of 
course, the cheaper. The walls inside may call for some 
kind of protection to prevent the sheep from wearing 
away any of the material of the bundles, but the protec- 
tion does not need to be given to a height greater than 3 
to 4 feet. Windows may be made to admit ample light, 
and ventilation must be secured where the shed is not 
open in front. Such sheds are amply warm, and in a rea- 
sonably dry climate should last for a number of years. 

In certain range states sheds for sheep have been 
constructed of logs. These, in comparatively treeless 
areas, are usually obtained from certain soft woods that 
grow beside the streams. The walls of these sheds are 
built after the fashion of the primitive log dwellings of 
years ago. The cracks between them are covered with 
clay of the consistency of mortar. The roofs have rafters 
with but one slope. These are covered with boards and 
the mortar clay is spread over the boards. In areas with 
but little rainfall such sheds answer the purpose quite 
well. They are of low construction, which is economical 
of material. In forest areas where settlement is but re- 
cent, sheds may be thus constructed of such timbers as 
may be in the locality, but in such instances the roof 
should be shingled, the better to resist the copious rain- 
fall of such areas. 

Sheds may be constructed on the prairies that will 
last for a number of years, though made of sods. Cheap 
as the construction of these may be, they do not stand 
so high in favor apparently as the log shed with the clay 
roof, and probably for the reason that more labor is in- 
volved in their construction. Sod sheds will not last many 
years where the rainfall is heavy. 

The more essential features of a sheep house — The 
discussion of the more essential features of a permanent 
sheep house, will consider the following: (i) A building 
oblong in shape ; (2) a structure of two stories ; (3) facili- 
ties for convenient feeding; (4) divisions in the lower 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 327 

Story; (5) warm lambing pens; (6) facilities for water- 
ing; (7) sunlight, yard room and paddocks; (8) ventila- 
tion without drafts. 

A building oblong in shape and not too wide, is usu- 
ally preferred for sheep, to one more nearly square. This 
will hold true of it, whether it has a passageway in the 
center from end to end and divisions on either side, or 
whether it has a passageway along one side and one tier 
of pens along the same. For the reason, see page 329. 

Whether the structure shall have one or two stories 
will depend very much on the climate as to precipitation, 
and on the amount of food called for to carry through the 
winter. The more moist the climate, the larger the 
amount of the precipitation in winter, and the longer the 
demand for food continues the greater is the necessity for 
two stories rather than one (see page 330). 

The matter of the facilities for feeding is greatly im- 
portant, because of the bearing that it has upon the 
amount of labor involved, and because of the influence 
which it has upon the saving or the wasting of food. The 
facilities called for vary greatly with the size of the flock 
and the divisiorts in the same, with the nature of the food 
or foods fed, and with the climatic conditions (see page 

332). 

The divisions in the lower story are dependent in a 
great measure on the divisions in the flock, and on the 
time when the lambs come. The larger the number of 
the divisions in the flock and the earlier the season at 
which the lambs begin to come, the larger is the number 
of the divisions required (see page 335). 

The necessity for warm lambing pens is, in a sense, 
imperative in a climate of low winter temperatures when 
the lambs come before the advent of warm weather. 
When the lambs come into existence in the fields, of 
course, the necessity for lambing pens is not present. On 
the ranges of the West the question of lambing pens does 
not need to be considered, but in areas where winter 



328 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

lambs are concerned it may be a very vital issue for the 
location and construction of lambing pens (see page 336). 

The facilities for watering are greatly important. 
The idea frequently cherished that sheep do not need to 
be supplied with water is certainly fallacious. They can 
exist without water when the pastures are succulent or 
when snow covers the ground better than any other class 
of animals kept on the farm, but -the fact remains that 
the flockmaster who supplies his sheep with an ample 
supply of pure water will be abundantly rewarded for his 
pains (see Chapter XV). 

The provision of sunlight, yard room and paddocks 
is seldom given the consideration which the importance 
of these demands. Without ample sunlight in the sheds, 
the highest degree of vigor in the sheep cannot be main- 
tained. In the absence of suitable yards the proper grad- 
ing of the sheep is not practicable, and in the absence of 
paddocks it is not possible to keep a breeding flock in 
every respect as it should be kept. For the further dis- 
cussion of this question see page 338. 

The question of ventilation without drafts is greatly 
significant. When sheep are confined in close quarters 
without proper ventilation, the results will soon become 
disastrous to the well-being of the flock. How such ven- 
tilation may be secured without drafts is discussed on 
page 339. 

The facilities for removing the manure should not be 
overlooked, since the frequent removal of the same is 
beneficial to the health of the sheep, and it also prevents 
serious deterioration in the value of the manure. Such 
removal tends to lessen odors that generate, and it tends 
to prevent fire fang, which is so common to sheep manure 
when made under cover. 

A building oblong and not too wide — An oblong 
sheep shed has the following advantages over one that is 
somewhat square or round in shape: (i) It makes it pos- 
sible to increase the divisions easily and to locate them 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 329 

conveniently; (2) it facilitates the easy storage of foods 
of different classes and the placing of the same for con- 
venient feeding, providing the shed has room for such 
storage overhead; (3) it makes it possible to increase the 
yard room and divisions in the same, and such possible 
increase becomes greater with increasing narrowness in 
the sheds; (4) it facilitates the easy removal of sheep 
from pen to pen and without the necessity of exposing 
them to outdoor weather. These facts will become more 
and more apparent as the plans submitted later in this 
chapter are studied. 

In some instances to these oblong buildings ex- 
tensions are added in the form of an L, which means that 
these are placed at right angles to the main shed. Some- 
times these extensions are at one end. In other instances 
they are at both ends. More commonly they extend quite 
across the end of the main building. Where but one ex- 
tension is built, it should be placed on the windward side 
of the yard. These extensions are, in a sense, a continua- 
tion of the main shed, but at a different angle. They 
serve the purpose, first, of adding to the room ; second, of 
making it possible to add to the yard room ; and, third, 
of furnishing protection to the yards from winds. There 
is no method of furnishing such protection that is more 
efficacious. 

In such an oblong building the location of the feed 
passage depends on the width of the same. Where the 
building is wide enough to admit of placing divisions on 
both sides of the passage, it must run from end to end, 
but not necessarily in the center, as it may be desirable 
to have the divisions larger on one side than on the other. 
The average width for such a passage is 6 feet. It should 
seldom be narrower, but may be wide enough where large 
numbers are to be fed to drive two horses and a wagon 
through the same. This would call for a width of not less 
than 9 or 10 feet. Where fodders and bedding are kept 
overhead, they may be thrown down through chutes into 



330 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEr 



the passage and distributed from the same into any direc- 
tion it may be desired. When but one tier of pens is 
present the passage should be placed just inside of the 
side wall on the shady side of the building. In that the 
sheep may have access to the yards on the same side. A 
passage thus placed may be a little narrower than a cen- 
tral passage, as a less amount of food is fed from it, but 
it should seldom be less than 6 feet. The passage should, 
of course, extend through the wings. Figure 15 shows an 
excellent form of sheep rack that may be at one or both 
sides of the feed passage. 

A structure of two stories — Whether the sheep shed 

should have one or 
two stories will be 
determined, as inti- 
mated elsewhere, by 
the necessity that 
exists for storing 
food and bedding un- 
der cover. In 
climates in which 
the rainfall is fre- 
quent and copious in 
winter, or in which 
the snowfall is deep, 
it is a great advan- 
tage to have the 
same under cover, 
and in no other way 
can such cover be 
provided more 
cheaply than through 
a sufficiently commodious loft in a sheep barn. In areas 
where the winter climate is dry and where but a limited 
amount of feeding is called for, it is not necessary to build 
sheds with two stories. Where much food is to be stored, the 
two-story shed is economical of construction. It is specially 




Lnd Vi. 



13' Ti« 



FIG. 



15— PLAN OF A CONVENIENT SHEEP 
RACK, END VIEW 
(Courtesy Michigan Agricultural College) 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 33I 

economical in roofing, as the one roof serves the double pur- 
pose of providing protection to the fodders in the upper 
story and to the sheep in the lower. It is also economical 
in foundation material and in other items of construction. 

The loft of such a building may be made to store a 
large amount of food. The higher the posts or walls 
that support the roof, the larger, of course, is the room 
for storage. The food and litter in the same may all be 
stored by the aid of a horsefork or a sling. When storing 
these, the aim should be to locate each kind, as far as this 
may be practicable, directly above the pens where the 
same is to be fed. 

The convenience in feeding fodders from such a loft 
will be at once apparent. The food is always dry, regard- 
less of the character of the weather, and the same is true 
of the litter. It does not require to be drawn from day to 
day or at intervals. The forking is downward and, there- 
fore, it is easily done. When the food is to be drawn from 
time to time there is not only a loss of time involved, but 
exposure may be called for that is irksome to the work- 
hands. A two-story shed does not necessarily mean a 
building located against a bank. It may be built on the 
level prairie as well as against the side of a hill. It may 
be built entirely of wood or other material. Materials 
other than wood for the lower story may keep out the 
cold more effectively than wood, but good siding and 
one thickness of tar paper will keep a sheep house amply 
warm, save for new-born lambs in a cold climate. Such a 
structure does not necessarily call for a driveway into the 
upper story, as the food is lifted by machinery. 

Whether a sheep house should be built against a 
bank under any conditions is a disputed question. If 
such a basement can be made to secure freedom from 
dampness and also from an undue lack of light, there 
should be no objection to it. It is quite possible in many 
instances to secure both. Such a basement may also 
bring with it the following advantages: (i) It may be 



332 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

made to furnish an excellent place for the birth of young 
lambs by simply penning off such an apartment ; (2) it 
makes it possible to locate the sites where it will be con- 
venient to feed from it and where the lower portion may 
have protection from the frost; (3) it makes it easily 
possible to make a safe storehouse for roots at little cost. 
Should a basement, however, be damp, it should not be 
used for housing sheep. 

Facilities for convenient feeding — When the facilities 
for convenient feeding are what they should be, the sav- 
ing in labor will thereby be greatly reduced. These in- 
clude: (i) Feed racks and their location; (2) a feed room 
and its location ; (3) a root cellar and its location ; (4) a 
silo and its location ; and (5) the feeding of hay and the 
furnishing of litter at a minimum of cost for labor. 

The feed racks are, as a rule, placed just inside the 
passages. This makes it easily possible to feed from the 
passages where the fodder comes down from the loft over- 
head into the passages ; when the fodder comes down into 
the passages, and where the racks are of proper construc- 
tion, the fodder may be fed without injury to the fleece 
from the chaffy particles in the fodder. For the construc- 
tion of such a rack, see Fig. 15. In other instances the 
racks, when movable and of the right length, may serve 
the purpose of partitions between the divisions and of 
racks at the same time. In other instances the racks for 
fodder are placed in the yards, and in many instances of 
range feeding they are placed along the outer border of 
the yards. This admits of filling them from without and 
with fodder that in quantity will last for several days. This 
way of feeding fodders is not ideal, but the high price of 
labor during recent years makes it in some instances a 
necessity. It is not an ideal way of feeding sheep when 
the fodder will suffice for more than a day, but there may 
be instances in which it is admissible to furnish fodders 
that will last for several days. 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 333 

Every sheep house with a large number of sheep in 
it should have a large feed room in which food may be 
prepared for the use of the flock. The preparation of the 
food for sheep is very simple. In many instances the 
grain does not need to be ground to make it suitable for 
the sheep. They grind it very effectively in the process 
of consuming it, or in the process of rumination that fol- 
lows. But there are instances in which it may be profit- 
able to feed fodders in the cut form and mixed with 
grains. In such instances a feed room may, in a sense, 
be a necessity. The location for the same will be influ- 
enced by the plan of the divisions in the shed. In some 
instances the feed room is located in one end of the shed 
on one or both sides of the passageway, and in other in- 
stances on only one side. When the silo is located at the 
side of the building and near the center, the feed room 
should be centrally located, but should the silo be at one 
end or corner of the same, then the feed room should be 
located at or near the end, with a view to facilitate the 
blending of foods, when this may be necessary or ad- 
visable. 

The location of the root cellar is influenced by the 
location of the feed room. If the roots are to be pulped 
or sliced, and in many instances they are thus fed, the best 
place for such pulping or slicing is in the feed room. This 
means, therefore, that the root cellar should be under the 
feed room or adjacent thereto. In cold climates where 
the feed room is near one end of the building, the most 
convenient place for the root cellar, all things considered, 
is underneath the feed room. The roots may thus be 
easily protected from frost. Where the sheep house is 
placed against a bank, and where the feed room is located 
centrally on one side, both the silo and the root cellar 
should be located in the bank and so as to open into the 
feed room. Such an arrangement greatly facilitates the 
blending of foods, should this be desired. Where but a 
limited quantity of roots is fed, however, it may be ad- 



334 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

vantageous in some instances to store them where they 
may be taken from a cellar located in a bank or pit, not 
too distant from the place of feeding. In other instances 
they are stored in a division of the lower story adjacent 
to the feed room. This storage room is protected from in- 
tense cold by siding and tar paper. The only tangible ob- 
jection to such an arrangement is the room which it occu- 
pies, which in its absence could be used as a division for 
sheep. 

When a silo is used, it should be located near the feed 
room, though the latter should be located at one end of 
the shed, or centrally on one side of the same. In a shed 
placed against a bank no better place can be found for 
the silo than in the bank and in proximity to the centrally 
located feed room. When the silage to be fed is thus 
thrown down into the feed room it is protected against 
frost, and it may be thus easily mingled with other foods 
should this be desired. But in many instances such mix- 
ing is not deemed necessary. 

In no way can fodder be furnished so conveniently as 
when it is stored in a suitable loft above the pens and 
when it comes down into a passageway from which it 
may be conveniently fed. But it may also be fed from a 
wagon driven through the passageway, where large quan- 
tities are to be fed. In practically rainless climates, in the 
winter season, it may be fed from racks that are not pro- 
tected from climatic influences and located on the outside 
of the yards, thus making it convenient to feed fodders 
thrown into the racks from outside sources. Into these 
racks enough of food is placed at one time to last for sev- 
eral days. They are so shaped as to act in a sense as self- 
feeders. Theoretically such feeding is unwise, as it is 
more or less wasteful of food, and the palatability of the 
fodder is thereby also reduced. Notwithstanding, where 
large bands are to be fed in dry areas, such a system of 
feeding is not to be condemned. 

Litter may be very conveniently furnished from a 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 335 

loft, providing it has been stored there. In many in- 
stances, however, there may not be room for such storage 
until some of the food is fed out. It may then be drawn 
from a stack on a still day and stored in the loft. When 
thus stored it may always be kept in a dry condition, 
which in bedding is a great matter. When straw is fed in 
the racks, which is quite legitimate in many instances, in 
order to furnish a part of the fodder, the uneaten residue 
may be used from time to time for bedding. 

Divisions in the lower story — Several divisions in the 
lower story are necessary where a flock of any consider- 
able size is kept. The different gradations call for food 
rations that in many instances are more or less different. 
For instance the stock and sale rams may call for a food 
different from the breeding ewes. These may call for 
food different from the shearling ewes, and all of these 
may call for food different from ewes that are suckling 
lambs. Where sheep are being fattened in considerable 
numbers, it may also be greatly advantageous to grade 
the sheep according to size and age. 

It is evident, therefore, that there should be some 
correspondence between the number of the divisions and 
the gradations in the flock. The larger the number of the 
latter the larger the number of the divisions should be. 
During the lambing season it is an advantage to have 
some extra divisions for the better grading of ewes that 
are nursing lambs. The space called for in such divisions 
is influenced by such considerations as the size of the 
sheep, the object for which they are being kept and the 
yard room available, when considered along with the 
climatic conditions. For large sheep not fewer than 15 
square feet of space should be furnished and for small 
sheep not fewer than 10 feet. Lambs that are being fat- 
tened with abundant yard room and in a dry climate will 
do with even a less amount of space. 

If some or all of the partitions are movable, the 
divisions may be enlarged. It may be very convenient in 



2T,i) MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SllEEP 

some instances to be able to enlarge or reduce the size of 
the divisions at will. The aim should be, of course, to 
give the sheep all the room that can be secured at all times. 

Warm lambing pens — When lambs come in the win- 
ter season, the necessity for a warm lambing pen is im- 
perative. When such a division is found in the basement 
of a shed that is located against a bank the problem is 
easy. The lambing pen may be located almost anywhere 
in the basement, but it is some advantage to have it 
located on the sunny side, so that some sunshine may be 
admitted into the lambing pen. When it is made in a 
wooden structure, it must be made to resist the ready 
penetrations of low temperatures. This may be accom- 
plished by sheeting closely on the outside and inside of 
the studding with boards and putting tar paper under- 
neath one or both sides of the same, according to the 
severity of the winter weather. In such an apartment 
lambs may come safely when the thermometer is 40 de- 
grees below zero, providing the dams are healthy and 
strong. The exact location of the lambing pen is largely 
a matter of convenience, but the aim should be to locate 
it on the sunny and sheltered side of the building. Care 
must also be taken to provide the necessary ventilation. 

The furnishings of a lambing pen may consist of a 
number of small inclosures made of fencing material. 
These may be movable. In these the ewes and their 
lambs may be kept singly, and in some instances in twos 
or threes, and graded according to the age of the lambs ; 
but more commonly they are kept singly for two or three 
days until the lambs get strong. They are then taken to 
another division to make room for ewes with younger 
lambs or with lambs not yet born. 

Facilities for watering — In areas where a living 
stream with pebbled beds runs through or in proximity 
to the yards, it may be made to furnish water in suitable 
form, providing ice does not form along the edges of the 
stream. But where ice forms sheep will not readily drink 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 337 

from openings in the same, hence they should not be re- 
quired to do so. Where large flocks are kept, it is very 
convenient to draw the water from taps attached to 
hydrants. In such instances it may be drawn into a 
trough suitably located under cover, but when it can be 
drawn from a tap into a tub located within each division 
the furnishing of water is greatly simplified. Even when 
the water comes from but one tap or from a pump, where 
the flocks are small, the plan is a good one which carries 
it in a pail when the water in the tubs is to be replenished. 

The tubs should be of low construction, so that the 
sheep may readily take water from them. When the 
weather is cold, the water may be emptied out of the 
buckets at nightfall, and they may be replenished again 
the next day. In this way the tubs may easily be kept 
clean. The water thus emptied out does no harm virtu- 
ally to the litter, because of the smallness of the quantity. 
The plan is not good which draws the water into a trough 
in which it freezes over quite frequently when the weather 
is cold, as sheep do not care to drink water that is thus 
icy cold unless impelled to by thirst. But water may be 
thus provided in some instances with advantage when the 
trough is so sheltered that ice does not readily form on 
the water. 

It is greatly important to furnish water to sheep in 
winter when they are getting only dry food, even though 
they may have access to clean snow. It is even more im- 
portant that the water given to them shall be pure and 
free from taint. \Mien it is not furnished, they will drink 
from small pools adjacent to the yards when the snow 
melts. When they take water thus the hazard is present 
that they may take up disease germs that may lead to 
serious loss. Sheep should never be allowed to take water 
from such sources when this can be prevented. 

Sunlight, yard room and paddocks — When locating a 
sheep shed, the question of sunlight should receive the 
most careful consideration. The same is true in regard 



T,^H MANAGEMENT AND EEEDING OF SilEEP 

to the location and size of the yards, and also in relation 
to the location and size of the paddocks. 

With regard to sunlight, the conclusion may be 
hastily reached that the part which it plays in successful 
sheep husbandry is unimportant. Such a conclusion is 
far from correct. Sunshine when properly focused, espe 
cially in the lambing pens, may in many instances make 
the difference between life and death in relation to the 
survival of newly born lambs. The free access of sun- 
light is destructive to disease germs, whatsoever may be 
their nature. It tends to strengthen and sustain life 
wherever it comes. These truths find recognition in the 
practice which gives the weaker animals of the flock, as 
the ewes and lambs, the occupancy of the apartments on 
the sunny side of the building" and locates the stronger 
animals, as shearling ewes and rams, in apartments on 
the shady side of the same. 

There may be a difference of opinion with reference 
to the size of the yards to which sheep have access, but 
there should be no difference of opinion with reference 
to their location. In regard to the former it may be said 
that roomy yards are preferable under dry conditions, but 
where there is much precipitation, reasonably small yards 
are to be preferred, as they call for a less amount of litter 
to keep them clean and dry and a less frequent removal of 
the same. In regard to the latter, where yards are located 
on but one side of the shed, the sunny side should, of 
course, be given the preference. But yards on the shady 
side may be very necessary sometimes, and they may also 
serve a very useful purpose. When the yards are fur- 
nished with movable partitions, the number of those 
divisions in use at one time may be increased or de- 
creased to suit present convenience. When the yards are 
narrow, the partitions may be made to lift out. When 
they are wide, the partitions must be in part permanent, 
each being provided with a gate. In some instances the 
possible number of divisions in the yards is the same as 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 339 

the number of the divisions in the pens, each pen having 
its ow^n corresponding yard. 

The number of the paddocks and their location will, 
of course, be determined in a great measure by such con- 
ditions as the size of the flock and the gradations of the 
same, and by the object for which it is being kept. The 
size of the paddocks should ordinarily bear some propor- 
tion to the size of the flock and to the divisions in the 
same. The more the gradations in flock, the more is the 
number of the paddocks that are called for; but it does 
not follow that as many paddocks are called as there are 
divisions in the flock, as it is seldom necessary to have all 
the gradations in the paddocks at the same time ; hence 
the same paddock may be used by more than one division 
of the sheep. In some instances they may be reached 
from the yards directly, but more commonly they are 
ranged on both sides of a lane leading out from the yards. 
In this way the}^ may be increased in number to the ex- 
tent of the needs, and they may also be of such size as 
may be deemed proper. They are thus rendered easily 
accessible. 

Ventilation without drafts — Ventilation is necessary 
and greatly important under all conditions, but artificial 
ventilation is not always a necessity. Sheep cannot be 
given too much fresh air, providing it comes to them in 
the absence of drafts, but they may very easily be given 
too little. No class of live stock will suflfer more in the 
absence of adequate ventilation. 

It is always necessary to provide artificial ventilation 
when sheep are housed in a shed the doors of which are 
closed for even a period of short duration, when it is 
occupied by sheep. In but few ways can disaster be more 
quickly brought to a flock than by housing them in close 
quarters in the absence of sufficient ventilation. They 
are harmed, first, by a lack of a sufficiency of pure air; 
second, by the excessive warmth that is usually gener- 
ated under such conditions, and which is especially harm- 



340 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ful to sheep with heavy fleeces, whether short or long; 
and, third, by the catarrhal troubles which are generated 
when the flock emerges from such warm surroundings 
into an atmosphere of low temperatures. 

Artificial ventilation is not called for where sheep are 
housed in, or rather are protected by a shed that is open 
in front, and in which they are given free access to yards 
in front of the shed. Rest in a shed under such conditions 
is not greatly different from resting overnight in an un- 
covered yard. In such instances, however, there should 
be no open windows or doors at the ends or rear of such 
a structure that would produce air currents when it is 
occupied with sheep while the temperature is low. 

In sheep houses of ordinary construction, which con- 
sist of but one story and which have doors only on the lee 
side, with windows that may be opened on occasion on 
the other side, by keeping the doors open, enough fresh 
air will ordinarily be secured. Should the wind blow 
from what is ordinarily the lee side, ventilation may be 
secured by closing the doors and opening the rear win- 
dows. 

Should the sheep house have divisions on both sides 
of a passage which runs lengthwise through it, then the 
plan is good which has doors and windows on both sides 
of the house. Fresh air may be admitted by opening the 
doors or windows, or both, on one side only, according 
as the wind may blow. In this way fresh air may be ad- 
mitted at all times and in abundant supply, as shown in 
Fig. i8. When there is a loft overhead, the shutes which 
extend upward in the same may be made to render sub- 
stantial service in carrying away the warm air. Except 
in very still and mild weather the windows or doors, or 
both, should only be open on one side at the same time. 

Ventilation in the rear divisions of a basement is not 
so easily secured when these have a bank of earth on one 
side. Usually, however, windows may be secured, if 
placed high, though in some instances it may be necessary 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 34I 

to remove a circle of earth from around the window to 
admit light as well as air. Further ventilation may be 
secured by carrying cold air down through wooden box 
tubes from the outside and warm air up by what is known 
as the "King System" of ventilation. This whole ques- 
tion, however, is even now much controverted. 

Plans of sheep houses — The plans of sheep sheds are 
many and diverse, and much may be said in favor of a 
goodly number of these, could the necessary space be se- 
cured. At this time, however, but three plans will be 
submitted. These are intended : (i) To meet the needs of 
an ordinary farm flock ; (2) to meet those of a large farm 
flock; and (3) of a large breeding flock. These are of 
simple construction, and experience has put the stamp of 
approval on them. They are not submitted as absolute 
guides, but rather to furnish ideas that may be found 
helpful when sheep sheds are to be constructed. 

There are, of course, instances when sheds are not 
necessary, or rather where it is possible to engage in cer- 
tain phases of sheep husbandry in their absence. In the 
dry and mild areas of the West they are frequently fat- 
tened under the canopy of the skies. Even in areas with 
winters cold and dry and with a snowfall not too heavy, 
they are sometimes fattened without other shelter than 
that of a grove. But in all, or nearly all, instances where 
breeding flocks are kept under American conditions, it is 
a great convenience, though not an absolute necessity, to 
have a shed that will provide shelter and more or less of 
storage for food. 

Fig. 16 submits the ground plan of a sheep shed 
adapted to the needs of what may be termed an ordinary 
farm flock. The building is 72 feet long and 24 feet wide. 
It is divided into six equal parts on the ground floor, 
excluding the passage which runs the whole length on 
the one side. This passage, 4 feet wide, is designed to 
afiford easy access for the attendant from one division to 
another, and it also affords a ready means of removing 



34-^ 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 



individual animals from one pen to another. In other 
instances it admits of carrying food or litter from the feed 
box in one division to be fed or strewn in another. The 
size of the respective divisions is shown in the plan. Of 
the main divisions only two are permanent, viz., those 
which separate the lambing pens from the pens adjacent 
to them. The lambing pens should be boarded up to the 
ceiling to insure sufficient warmth, and may in addition, 
if necessary, be covered with tar paper. The three cen- 

72- 




FIG. 16— GROUND PLAN OF SHEEP BARN FOR AN ORDINARY FARM FLOCK 



tral divisions may have movable double feeding racks be- 
tween them, should this be desired. Two of these are 
placed in line, end to end, between each division. By re- 
moving these racks, much of the building may virtually 
be converted into an open shed, since the doors are 6 to 7 
feet wide, or by removing one or more of the racks on the 
yard side of the building and inclosing the open space at 
the ends of those which remain. One part of the build- 
ing may be used as an open shed, and any divisions thus 
inclosed would answer for keeping the stock ram in it sep- 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 343 

arate from the ewes, and also any rams that may be on 
hand. From the small boxes or receptacles underneath 
the shutes fodder can be readily obtained. The number 
of these may be reduced to three if absolutely necessary, 
one box serving to hold fodder for two apartments. The 
shutes are near the side of the building, and though they 
extend up into the mow for some distance, they do not 
seriously interfere with the storing of food or litter over- 
head, as it may be taken in by a horse fork or a sling at 
the end of the building and underneath the ridge. 

The posts of the building should be of any desired 
length in keeping with the symmetry of the same. A 
height of 14 to i6 feet would usually be ample. There 
should be room in the loft to hold at least a supply of 
fodder for one season, and if there is room for a supply 
of litter also the condition is to that extent more satis- 
factory. Grain may also be stored in the loft over the 
shepherd's room. By using hoppers or hopper-shaped 
bins above, ducts leading from these, and spouts below, 
which may be opened and closed at will, a supply of grain 
can always be conveniently obtained. The siding may 
be composed of boards with battens over the cracks, or it 
may consist of ordinary drop siding, with or without a 
lining of tarred or building paper inside, according to cir- 
cumstances. When the lambing pens are properly made, 
wood lining may not be necessary on the inside of the 
walls under some conditions, but more commonly it will 
be necessary in northern areas in order to make the pens 
sufficiently warm. It may not always be necessary to 
use so much space in the lambing pens, and when the 
lambs come late these can be dispensed with altogether. 
The same is true of the shepherd's room. 

The yard may be readily divided by running across 
it one or more movable partitions, thus making as many 
divisions in the yard as may be desired. It will be ob- 
served that provision is made for gates at the ends of the 
yard, hence a wagon may be driven in front of the divi- 



344 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 



sions for the easy removal of the manure. Through the 
gates which open from the paddocks into the yards, or 
from the yards into the paddocks, ingress or egress is 
easy. 

Fig. 17 gives the ground plan of a shed w^hich will 
meet the needs of a large flock kept under ordinary farm 
conditions. It nearly incloses three sides of a rectangle 

or square, according as 
the side wings are long 
or short. The buildings 
at the corners are for 
the storage of fodder or 
grain. They are 24 x 
24 feet and the posts 
are 18 feet high, but 
these dimensions, as 
also those submitted 
later, may be modified 
to meet more exactly 
the requirements. But 
there should always be 
a proper relation be- 
tween the storage room 
in the buildings and the 
feeding requirements in the sheds. The two long sheds are 
16 X 80 feet and the shorter one, which, of course, may be 
larger, is 16 x 40 feet. The roof of the sheds between the 
buildings for storage may be given but one slant, in which 
case the height of the same at the rear plate does not 
need to exceed 7 feet. But a ridge roof may be preferable. 
When the sheds have a loft running along the whole of 
the length, or a part of the same, and with sufficient 
capacity to store enough litter to supply the flock during 
all the winter, such storage will be found a great conveni- 
ence during the period of winter feeding. When the roof 
of the shed is given but one slant, the bedding may be re- 
ceived into the loft through windows on the yard side. 




FIG. 



17— PLAN OF SHEEP BARN WITH 
YARD PROTECTION 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 345 

The location of the lambing pens and of the root cellar 
is shown in the engraving, but should occasion call for 
it there may be a lambing pen in each of the structures 
which will hold fodder, and two root cellars, one below each 
of the corner structures, would be a great convenience when 
feeding the roots. The feeding racks, D, are placed along 
the front of the sheds, but they may be placed toward the 
rear, or as desired. The hay chutes come down into in- 
closures of suitable height at C. The size of these must 
be adjusted to the amounts of the fodder called for, but 
they should be amply large. The feed bin, B, lo x 12 feet, 
is shown in the sketch, and to the rear of it is a stairway 
leading to the root cellar, which is underneath the lamb- 
ing pen. The loft over the feed room and the lambing 
pen should have a tight floor. The sheds may be divided 
by movable partitions, and the yard may also be sub- 
divided by movable fences. 

The following are among the advantages of such a 
structure: (i) It furnishes shelter for a large flock of 
sheep and storage room for food and litter for the same 
at relatively small cost. (2) It furnishes permanent shel- 
ter against the winds, virtually without cost, and it is 
shelter of the most effective kind. (3) It makes it easily 
possible to get abundant paddock room by placing the 
paddocks at the rear of the buildings. The sheep may be 
admitted into these directly from the sheds. 

Fig. 18 shows the ground plan of a sheep house 
adapted to the needs of a large breeding flock kept under 
farm conditions. It represents the ground plan of the 
sheep barn at the Minnesota experiment farm. A build- 
ing of the same dimensions may be too costly for an 
average breeding flock on the ordinary farm, but the same 
is not true of it where a large breeding flock is to be main- 
tained for a term of years. There are certain features 
about the plan which can be profitably utilized by the 
flockmaster when erecting shelter for sheep on a much 
smaller scale. 



346 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 



The building was planned by the author with a view 
to breeding and also to feeding sheep in an experimental 
way. It is no feet long and 36 feet wide. The posts are 
14 feet high, but should be 16 feet as designed by the 
author. On one side of the front end entrance is a silo, 
and on the other a wool room, which may also serve as a 
shepherd's room in winter, should this be desired. The 
next two apartments are lambing pens, one on either side. 
The following divisions are for the sheep, on both sides of 




FIG. r 



-GROUND PLAN OF SHEEP BARN AT THE MINNESOTA EXPERIMENT 
STATION 



the passage, which is 6 feet wide and runs from end to 
end of the building, but not in the center. This was 
planned so that the chutes which bring the fodders from 
above would not interfere with the working of the horse 
fork, when taking in food from the end of the building. 
On one side of the passage five divisions are located 20x18 
feet. These open into yards on the shady side of the 
building. Sheep for experimental uses were kept in these. 
On the farm such members of the flock as are not good 
to produce lambs could be kept in them. They could be 
reduced in size by placing the passage toward that side 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 347 

of the building, and this would proportionately enlarge 
the pens on the other side. On the side of the passage 
opposite to the large pens is one 20 x 12 feet and eight 
12 X 10 feet. These are for ewes in lamb and they open 
on the sunny side of the building. 

It will be observed that each of the partitions is mov- 
able. They may be lifted only far enough to serve the 
purpose of a lamb creep, or they may be lifted out so as 
to enlarge the pens. When thus lifted out, a wagon may 
be driven right through the divisions from end to end for 
the removal of the manure. Ingress for the wagon is 
made by the double doors, 7^ x 7 feet, at the ends of 
the building and egress for the same into the yards in 
the divisions remote from the plan of entrance. 

Such apartment on the sunny side has a window, 
and on the shady side each has two. The size of the win- 
dows is 30 X 26 inches, and they are made to slide up 
and down. Each apartment is also furnished with a door 
cut in twain across the middle. These doors, 3x6 inches 
across, open outward. The feeding racks run along the 
passage on each side of the same. A door opens from the 
passage into each division of the shed. It is 2 feet, 8 
inches wide, and 2 feet 10 inches high, which is 2 inches 
less than the height of the lining on both sides of the 
passage. The walls are boarded up with deep siding 
nailed on to the studs with building paper underneath 
the siding. The floor is simply of earth, except in the 
feed room, the shepherd's room and the passage. 

The fodder and litter may be taken in at the ends of 
the loft or through doors at the sides of the same. Both 
the fodder and litter come down through chutes into the 
passage below. These chutes, three in number are 22 x 32 
inches and they are suitably spaced. As they extend up- 
ward they slant toward one side so as not to interfere with 
the action of the horse fork. When the dififerent kinds of 
fodder are suitably stored in sections in the loft, they are 
at all times accessible. Should it be desired, the apart- 



348 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ments may be littered from a wagon driven in front of the 
pens. The loft has a tight floor. 

Water is brought in by means of pipes connected 
with the water system that supplies the buildings. In 
the absence of such a system it could, of course, be in- 
troduced through means of a well, a windmill and a tank. 
It is drawn from hydrants into pails, as needed, and the 
sheep drink from shallow buckets in the divisions. These 
may be kept clean by overturning them daily. 

The silo, as will be observed, is circular. It is 24 feet 
high and 12 feet across. The staves are 2x3 inches, and 



FIG. 19— SHEEP BARN AT THE MINNESOTA EXPERIMENT STATION 

these are tongued and grooved, which is not now consid- 
ered necessary. It is girded around with 15 hoops of 
^-inch band iron, 3 inches broad. Twelve hoops suitably 
spaced would probably prove ample. The bottom hoop 
is just above the floor and the distance between the hoops 
increases somewhat as they extend upward. Hinged 
doors open into a chute extending upward on the side 
next to the feed room. These would better serve the pur- 
pose if they were not hinged, but rather fitted in from the 
inside, the edges being beveled. The size suitable for 



SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 349 

such a box chute is 24 x 2,^ inches, and it should have 
a ladder within attached to one side. The doors may be 
24 inches long and 18 inches broad. The floor consists of 
two thicknesses of brick laid in cement. 

The root cellar is 16 feet in diameter. Its location 
and form will be readily apparent from the plan. The wall 
is of bricks laid in mortar. In no part does the wall come 
nearer on the inside than 3 feet 8 inches from the outer 
walls of the building, that the frost may be the more 
easily excluded. The window spaces, which are also used 
as chutes for admitting the roots, have triple thickness 
of glass in the form of a double window without and a 
single one within. The floor overhead is ceiled, first, with 
shiplap; second, with two thicknesses of tarred paper; 
third, with furring to make an air space ; and fourth, with 
shiplap. The door which opens into the feed room at the 
head of the stair has also two thicknesses of boards, with 
tarred paper and airspace. Fig. 19 gives an outside view 
of the structure. 

The yards extend out 18 feet from the building on 
either side, and they are separated from one another by 
movable divisions. A less width than 18 feet, as, for in- 
stance, 12 or 14 feet, would make the moving of the 
partitions much easier. They extend from the shed to 
the fence that hems in the yard. 



CHAPTER XVII 
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 

Chapter XVII considers: (i) The culling of the 
flock; (2) The disposal of the culls; (3) The disposal of 
pure bred sheep and lambs ; (4) Fitting sheep for sale ; 
(5) The disposal of grade sheep and lambs ; (6) Deter- 
mining the age of sheep; (7) Preparing sheep for ship- 
ping; (8) Shipping stockers from the ranges; (9) 
Shipping finished sheep in car lots; and (10) Shipping 
finished sheep in train loads. 

The culling of the flock — Every breeding flock should 
be culled not less often than once a year, and it is seldom 
necessary to cull more frequently. The time usually re- 
garded as the most suitable is the season when the lambs 
are to be weaned. The real value of the ewes may be 
better understood at that time than at any other season. 
They have been weaning their lambs, and the most im- 
portant indication of their value as breeders is the form 
and furnishings of the lamb or lambs which they may 
have reared. That time is further opportune because it 
separates material for disposal at a season when it may 
most readily be disposed of, or most readily and cheaply 
prepared for disposal. 

The culling of the farmer's pure-bred flock should 
consider: (i) The ewes to be retained or sold; (2) the 
ewe lambs to be retained or sold; (3) the ram lambs held 
for immediate sale and those to be carried over; and (4) 
the animals to be sent to the block, old or young. The 
ewes retained for breeding should, of course, include the 
best, and the aim should be to secure them, so far as may 
be practicable, of the same type. Those set aside may be 
too valuable to justify making them into mutton, hence 
it is legitimate to sell them as breeders. The same rules 

350 



DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 35 1 

should guide in the selection of the ewe lambs, and when 
once set aside for the home flock the temptation to sell 
them to customers should be strenuously resisted. The 
strongest and best only of the ram lambs should be 
offered for immediate sale, and these should be kept apart 
from the others. To graze them together will injure the 
sale of the best lambs. The other ram lambs will take 
the market better as yearlings. The cull lot for feeding 
will include old ewes, any whose udders may have failed, 
and lambs ofif in form and markings and in the character 
of the fleece. 

When culling grade flocks there is, of course, no 
legitimate place for the retention or sale of rams for 
breeding uses. Much care should be exercised, however, 
in the selection of the ewes to be retained and of the 
ewe lambs. Unless the ewes that have suckled lambs are 
considered in connection with the lambs, mistakes in the 
selection of the ewes are very liable to occur. A ewe 
should not be rejected on the sole ground that she is low 
in flesh. If a large lamb at weaning time stands by her 
side, the lamb is the explanation of and apology for her 
leanness. She has been generous in the proportion of 
food turned over to the lamb, but if she is dried and put 
on a good pasture, she will soon pick up again. The ewe 
that fed her lamb poorly all summer will look much better 
at weaning time than the other. The owner of a good 
grade flock can afiford to cull severely. 

It would seem approximately correct to say that 
grade flocks should be so renewed from year to year that 
every three years the animals in it would be entirely 
changed. This applies to farm conditions. The plan 
which takes three crops of lambs from ewes and then dis- 
poses of them meets with much favor. This is said in full 
knowledge of the fact that some ewes may breed success- 
fully for a much longer period. The lambs are thus pro- 
duced by ewes in the zenith of their usefulness. The 
ewes themselves are also disposed of at an age when they 



35-2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

are still capable of fattening readily on suitable rations. 
Range ewes of the Merino types will produce profitably 
for a longer period, but such ewes should not be retained 
on the ranch after their teeth have begun to fail. The 
culling of pure-bred flocks not so strong numerically as 
they are to be, is apt to be less severe than the circum- 
stances would justify. Because of this those flocks fre- 
quently fall below a high standard. 

Disposal of the culls — When sheep and lambs are 
culled on the range, they must be sold for what they will 
bring, as they cannot be fattened on the range. More 
commonly they are shipped to some stock yard center and 
are then sold to be finished when the facilities for such 
finishing may be found on the farm or at the yards. Dur- 
ing recent years the extension of the beet-sugar industry 
to the mountain valleys of the West and the growth of 
alfalfa in the same areas has opened up a new field for 
the fattening of culls, especially culls rejected because of 
age. The soft pulp can be readily eaten by these, though 
they should be almost toothless with age. 

On the arable farm the culls may be fattened. They 
may be fattened in the autumn on suitable grazing, more 
especially on rape, or they may be fattened after the win- 
ter has closed in. Usually they may be more cheaply 
fattened on grazing, and this makes it possible to get 
them out of the way before the coming of winter, which 
usually brings with it a call for all the available space 
that it may be possible to secure. 

Culls are usually slow feeders, and in many instances 
the profit from feeding is less than that secured from a ■ 
better class of animals. In the nature of things it is so, 
as the influences that led to their rejection as breeders 
are still operative, and will in consequence make them rela- 
tively slow feeders. The want of uniformity, which in 
most instances they possess, tends also to discount the 
price paid for them. Nevertheless, there may be instances 



DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 353 

when it may be legitimate to buy culls for feeding (see 
page 224). 

There are instances, especially in small flocks, where 
the culls may be used with advantage on the farm. Be- 
cause they have been culled out for slaughter, it does 
not follow that they will not furnish meat of good quality. 
That will depend chiefly on the way in which they are 
fattened. A sheep may be rejected as a breeder because 
it is undersize or off in form in some particulars, and yet 
it may furnish excellent mutton. Aged sheep fattened 
quickly will lose much of that toughness that would 
otherwise characterize the meat. The home supply of 
meat may in many instances be largely drawn from this 
source for the entire winter by those who have a liking 
for mutton ; when thus used there is no discount put upon 
the animals simpl}^ because they are culls. Such dis- 
counting is very common when these are sold upon the 
market. 

Dressing sheep for home use is not difficult. A fast 
of 24 hours before slaughtering is helpful. The method 
frequently followed is in outline as follows : The animal 
is caught, laid on its side and held by one person with his 
knee upon the shoulder, one leg at least being firmly held 
in each hand. The throat is cut by a second person as 
he holds the lower jaw point firmly in his hand. The 
skin is then removed before or after hanging up the sheep 
and the inwards are taken out. The carcass remains sus- 
pended until the animal heat has left it. The longer that 
it can be kept without taint the better will be the mutton. 

Disposal of pure brads — Pure-bred sheep and lambs 
set aside for disposal are more commonly sold by private 
sale. They are usually regarded as being too valuable to 
sell for meat as long as they are capable of breeding suc- 
cessfully. In some instances ewes whose teeth have be- 
gun to fail are purchased as material on which to found 
flocks, as such material can usually be purchased cheaply. 
The practice is not to be condemned, nor is it to be in- 



354 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

discriminately commended. If ewes thus purchased are 
suitably fed, they may be able to produce and rear lambs 
for one or two years longer than if not thus provided with 
food suited to their advanced age ; that is, food that is 
easy to masticate and rich in nutrients. But the fact 
remains that ewes past the meridian of vigor will not rear 
lambs of equal excellence with those reared by the same 
ewes when in their prime. 

The sale and purchase of inferior rams for breeding 
uses, simply because they are purely bred is a serious 
mistake. It may bring immediate gain to the seller, but 
in the end it is sure to react against the reputation of the 
breeder and of the breed. Such animals ought to be sold 
for slaughter, every temptation to dispose of them for 
any other use should be resisted and the same is true of 
pure-bred ewes of decided inferiority. 

Orders for pure-bred sheep, and especially for pure- 
bred rams, are very frequently filled by mail. They cannot 
be filled otherwise when the buyer and seller live far 
apart, because of the expense that would be thus incurred 
in traveling. Such orders are based on the reputation 
of the seller, who cannot be too careful to keep his repu- 
tation unsullied in the way in which the orders are filled. 
Those who give them should be careful to describe the 
character of the animal or animals that they want, and 
those who fill them should be equally careful to fill them 
in the line of the requirements. If they cannot do this 
they should not try to fill them. Some breeders have been 
able to build up a very large business on these lines. 
Other breeders have never been able to do so, the differ- 
ence in the results being based chiefly on a difference 
in the methods of filling orders. 

The leading live stock fairs that are held usually 
furnish auspicious times for the purchase of stock, rams 
especially; for the purchase of what are commonly re- 
ferred to as field rams — that is, rams that have been fitted 
for the show ring. Many breeders take to the fairs a 



DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 355 

number of such rams for sale, hence the person who may 
desire to invest is given the opportunity to choose from 
various flocks. 

In Great Britain a large proportion of the rams 
reared are sold at sales held in certain centers every year. 
Those sales furnish opportunities that cannot be improved 
upon for securing stock rams. They bring the buyer and 
seller close together at a minimum of cost, so the pro- 
spective buyer has the opportunity of inspecting animals 
from many flocks before the sale is held. The sale also 
tends to inspire those who furnish the animals sold to 
bring them possessed of high excellence, that the prices 
paid may add to their reputation as successful breeders. 
It would be a great mistake to bring inferior animals to 
such sales. The sales should be well advertised and the 
sheep carefully catalogued. 

It cannot be said that the attempts to sell sheep for 
breeding at such sales in America have been altogether 
successful, a result that may have arisen in part from 
the apparent hesitancy on the part of those who furnish 
the animals to hazard the selling of high-class sheep by 
auction. That such sales will yet become common in this 
country would seem to be a foregone conclusion, because 
of the fine opportunity which they furnish to intending 
purchasers for inspecting animals from many herds. The 
tendency at the present time is to hold such sales at cen- 
ters where important live stock fairs are held, and 
simultaneously with the fairs. The time and place for 
holding these sales, however, is at present in the tentative 
stage. 

Fitting sheep for sale — When sheep or lambs are 
held for sale, either public or private, they will not sell 
readily, nor will they bring good prices unless possessed 
of reasonably good flesh and a fair amount of bloom. 
Both conditions appeal to the eye. Where the animals 
ofl^ered are thin, the suspicion is aroused that they are 
lacking in bloom; they do not possess the attractions 



356 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

which bloom brings with it. Bloom may be defined as 
that condition in which form, wool and action are pleas- 
ing- and attractive. It indicates present and prospective, 
continued thrift. Animals long maintained under high 
pressure feeding at length lose their bloom, and when 
they do they cannot again regain it to the same extent, as 
the energies of the system have been weakened by over- 
work. To sell sheep at auction that are low in flesh or 
lacking in bloom is a great mistake. Sheep held for sale 
at home or elsewhere, should be at least measurably 
trimmed with the shears. The nature of the trimming 
will depend on the kind of the sheep and the conditions 
under which they have been kept. Trimming improves 
the appearance of the sheep. The claim that it tends to 
deceive is not valid, as the intending purchaser is not 
debarred from handling the sheep. If he neglects to 
handle them, he may be deceived by the fleece of the 
sheep untrimmed as well as by the fleece of that trimmed. 
When sold in lots at home or in the sale ring, the respec- 
tive lots should be carefully graded. This means that the 
individuals in the respective lots should be chosen with 
reference to similarity in age, size and type. Such uni- 
formity is pleasing to the eye, and it brings added value 
to the lots thus sold. Those sold at auction should be 
numbered on the side or back with ink applied with 
stamp or stencil, that they may be readily identified. 
Portable pens ^ill be greatly helpful in bringing lots to 
the sale ring. 

Disposal of grades — More commonly grade sheep 
grown upon the farm are disposed of as lambs ; that is. 
under the age of 12 months. The exact age for such dis- 
posal will depend on the aims of the grower and on his 
ifacilities for furnishing lambs at dififerent ages. It would 
seem correct to say that, as a rule, the profit made from 
lambs decreases relatively with increase in age, providing 
that in all instances they are put upon the market in fin- 
ished form. A well-fed lamb two or three months old 



DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 357 

will frequently sell for as much as the same lamb would 
bring if retained until 9 to 12 months old. When not 
sold as milk lambs, the aim should be to finish them on 
the farm, so that the profit made from the finishing may 
accrue to the owner rather than to someone who may 
purchase them for feeding. On the range sheep are sold 
as lambs or wethers. Whether they should be sold as lambs 
or older, depends in no small degree on the relative price 
of wool and mutton. The higher relatively the price paid 
for wool, the more advantageous, relatively, to sell as 
wethers rather than lambs, and vice versa. In former 
decades the range stocks were disposed of as wethers, 
but at present the disposal of males as lambs is on the 
increase. The tendency is to increase the ewes, since a 
ewe will furnish a fleece and a lamb, while the wether 
furnishes a fleece only. It is true, nevertheless, that a 
wether will sell for more than a lamb, and he will con- 
sume less grazing than a ewe and a lamb. 

On the range the surplus stock is usually sold to go 
to the block directly or after having been fattened at 
some place of finishing not in the range country. The 
aged ewes culled out are disposed of similarly. But on 
the farm it may be different. Where the flock is small 
the animals singled out for disposition may frequently be 
all used in supplying meat for the farmer and his family. 
It may seem incongruous to recommend the disposal of 
culls in that way, but when sheep are kept in but lim- 
ited numbers the grade of culls even may rank relatively 
high. 

Determining the age of sheep — When culling the 
flock, it is not always possible to determine the age of 
those which ought to be discarded on the ground of age, 
nor can a judge be quite sure of the exact age when pass- 
ing upon sheep in the show ring. In the latter instances, 
however, he can make a close approximation from indica- 
tions furnished bv the teeth. The absence of teeth and 



358 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Other indications will throw some light upon this question 
of old age. 

At birth, or before the first month is past, the lamb 
is possessed of eight incisors or milk teeth, as they are 
sometimes called. These are all in the under jaw and in 
the front part of the mouth. Directly above is a bony 
substance known as the dental pad, which serves in the 
place of teeth. At the age of, say, 12 to 16 months, the 
two central incisors make way for the two first perma- 
nent ones. At the age of, say, 21 or 22 months, the sec- 
ond pair of permanent incisors appear, and of course, on 
either side of the first pair. At the age of 30 months, 
and in some instances earlier, the third pair are in place, 
and at the age of, say, 36 months, but sometimes two or 
three months later, the fourth and last pair are in place, 
when the sheep are said to have a full mouth. 

The mature sheep has 24 grinding teeth, usually 
spoken of as molars. Of these 12 are in the under and 12 
in the upper jaw, six on each side. Of these the first, 
second and third, counting from the front backwards, are 
present at birth, but are replaced later. In about three 
months from birth the first permanent molars appear, 
occupying the fourth place. At about nine months the 
second permanent molars appear, occupying the fifth 
place, and at about 18 months the third complement of 
permanent molars occupy the sixth place. At, say, 22 
months, the first and second temporary molars in each 
side and in both the upper and lower jaw are replaced, 
and at, say, 24 months, the third temporary molars are re- 
placed. The full mouth has 32 teeth in all. The perma- 
nent teeth are both larger and darker in color than the 
temporary teeth. 

The other indications of age — that is, of old age — 
include the partial or total loss of the teeth, depression 
of the loin, hollowness at the barrel depression, sagging 
of the paunch and distension of the nostril. There is 
some relation between long^evitv in the breed and the time 



DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 359 

when the teeth fail. In some breeds the teeth are lost 
at about half the age at which they are lost in other 
breeds. The more that quick maturity has been sought 
in a breed, the younger the age at which the teeth are 
shed, and vice versa. The other indications referred to are 
also affected by the same influence. Longevity in the 
Merino is much greater than in the other breeds now in 
America. In former decades American Merinos have in 
some instances produced lambs at the age of 20 years. 
The instances are not numerous with nearly all the other 
breeds in which they have produced lambs beyond half 
the age mentioned. 

It is apparent, therefore, that the indications of age 
mentioned are only approximations more or less close to 
the truth. The time at which the teeth are shed, for 
instance, is much influenced by the forced character of 
the feeding, or the opposite. Liberal feeding tends to 
produce early shedding of the teeth. When sheep are 
liberally fed they get their first pair of permanent incisors 
at about 11 months, the second at 18 months, the third at 
27 months and the fourth at 36 months. At the Smithfield 
fat stock show in England, sheep having their central 
permanent incisors cut are considered as beyond the age 
of ID months ; those having them fully grown as beyond 
12 months; those having the third pair cut as exceeding 
19 months; and those having the third pair fully up and 
all the temporary molars replaced as exceeding 24 months. 

Preparing sheep for shipping — When sheep are 
shipped from the ranges a change of food is not necessary 
preceding their shipment. They may be taken directly 
from the pastures to the cars on which they are loaded. 
It is important that the car is well furnished with bedding, 
as it will add greatly to their comfort and will help to 
keep the wool from getting soiled. For an ordinary single 
deck car not less than 200 to 300 pounds of bedding should 
be furnished in the form of straw where obtainable, or 
old hav where straw is not to be had. 



DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 361 

When shipping sheep from farm pastures to the mar- 
ket it may be necessary, in some instances, to put them 
on dry feed for a day or two prior to shipping. The object 
sought is to lessen the tendency to scouring that might 
otherwise result. Such a course is important when sheep 
are being finished on succulent pastures, such as rape. 
When shipped from feed lots, the grain ration should be 
materially reduced for a day or two before shipping. Oats 
furnishes the safest grain food to feed at such a time. 

Instances may occur in which the individual may 
have only a part of a carload to ship. His aim should be 
to get some neighbor similarly situated to join with him 
in completing the loading of the car. Such co-operation 
in localities far from market is highly important, and 
should be made a matter of pre-arrangement before the 
feeding begins. Swine also may be used, of course, to 
complete the loading of the car, but when so used the 
partition that separates the sheep and swine should be 
strongly made. 

When shipping sheep out of the stock yards to be 
finished on the farm or elsewhere, it is a wise precaution 
to dip them before removing them from the stock yards. 
Such dipping is a safeguard against scab and ticks, but if 
scab is suspected the sheep ought to be dipped twice with 
an interval between (see page 439). The stock yards 
furnish the dipping plant and materials for dipping, and 
they take charge of the same at so much per head. The 
charge is usually a moderate one. The aim should be to 
carry the sheep in disinfected cars after they have been 
thus dipped. As the run from the stock yards to the farm 
or other place where the sheep are to be finished is not 
usually a long one, the car is furnished with bedding only. 
When the sheep will be long in transit some hay is put 
around the sides of the car, which they will consume, in 
part at least, on the way. 

Shipping stockers from the ranges — When sheep are 
shipped as stockers from the ranges, the numbers are such 



362 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

usually as to admit of grading the animals before they 
are shipped. The aim in grading should be: (i) To keep 
the old and young ewes separate from each other and 
from the lambs and wethers; (2) to keep the lambs and 
wethers apart, and, when the numbers will justify it, to 
grade the lambs and wethers according to age and size. 
When the yards are reached where these are exposed for 
sale, the different classes should occupy different pens. 
The benefit resulting is that higher relative price which 
uniformity brings with it. The purchaser of stockers de- 
sires uniformity, for the reason that an even lot will fat- 
ten more readily than a mixed lot or a lot similar in kind 
but differing much in the flesh which they carry, and the 
uniformity in the feeders purchased will tend much to 
produce uniformity in the feeders finished. Uniformity 
in the latter is even more desirable than in the former. 

Sheep are sometimes shipped in a single deck car, 
and sometimes in one with two decks. The number that 
a car will carry will, of course, depend on the size of the 
sheep or Iambs, the amount of flesh that they carry and 
the length of the car. On a car 36 feet long from 120 to 
130 wethers may be shipped as stockers on a single deck. 
When shipping old ewes they should not be crowded so 
closely as in the case of wethers, as they are less able 
to bear up under untoward conditions than wethers. 
Stock lambs vary more in size than wethers ; hence this 
variation is greater in the number that the car will carry. 
When the lambs are developed so as to weigh 60 to 70 
pounds, a single deck of a 36-foot car should carry from 
140 to 150 head. When the lambs are under 60 pounds in 
weight, the single deck should carry 170 to 180 head. A 
maximum weight in the load carried is fixed upon as the 
basis of charge for the car. If the car is not loaded up to 
this maximum, the shipper is so far the loser; but if 
loaded to exceed the maximum, the shipper pays propor- 
tionately for the excess. 



DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 363 

The aim should be not to unload the stockers in 
transit more frequently than the law compels such 
unloading. Sheep, like cattle, will not eat or drink 
much while in transit; hence the all-important consid- 
eration is to try and get them to their destination as 
quickly as possible. When they reach the stockyards, 
if so considered, they are subject to inspection, and as a 
safeguard cannot go out for being finished without being 
dipped once, and twice in case that scabies are discovered. 
The cost of sheep held in the yards is, of course, borne by 
the owners. 

Shipping finished sheep in car lots — When sheep are 
to be shipped in car lots, the wise feeder will look well 
ahead with reference to securing cars at the time fixed 
upon for shipping. The importance of giving most care- 
ful attention to this matter increases with the distance 
from the market and the lack of competition in the rail- 
roads. The officials of the road should be given such 
timely notice of the need of cars as to leave them without 
excuse if the cars are not forthcoming. Instances may be 
cited in which failure to secure cars at the proper time 
has turned what would have been a handsome profit into 
no profit at all. This result followed the constrained feed- 
ing of the sheep after they were ready for shipment and 
downward tendencies in the markets. 

Where large numbers of sheep are fed, the grading 
of the shipments will be easily practicable. It may not be 
practicable on the farm where but one carload lot is fin- 
ished. In the former instance the finished animals may 
be sent forward as ready, the less finished going later. In 
the latter instance they may be graded after reaching the 
yards, if this is thought best. 

The number of finished animals that a car will carry 
will, of course, be influenced by their size and the degree 
of the finish possessed. In a single-deck 36-foot car, about 
100 finished wethers such as come from the range can be 
shipped without discomfort through overcrowding. From 



364 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

120 to 130 finished lambs will make a load. But the num- 
bers given may be exceeded or diminished so as to vary 
considerably through the influences named. 

Usually it will be found to the advantage of the 
shipper to consign the shipment to some reputable com- 
mission firm. The advice of the said firm with reference 
to a propitious time for shipping will usually prove help- 
ful. The commission house should be apprised by wire 
of the time when the loaded consignment will leave, so 
that they will know when to look for it at the yards. 
After inspection the stock is in charge of the commission 
firm until sold. The said firm makes sure that the ani- 
mals are properly unloaded, that they are properly fed 
and watered, and that the animals are promptly sold at 
the best rates obtainable. A check is then issued to the 
owner, with the charges deducted. These charges include 
such items as switching charges, the cost of food, charges 
for weighing and the commission charges. 

Shipping finished sheep in train loads — As a matter 
of economy in shipping, sheep are sometimes sent forward 
from the place of feeding in train loads from points that 
are far away. To put these on the market at one time 
might involve hazard, especially when several days are 
occupied in the journey, owing to the change in market 
values. To avoid such hazard, the plan is adopted of 
securing an unloading point not distant from the mar- 
ket. The plant at this point may also be used as a feed- 
ing station. 

The sheep should reach this plant in ample time to 
enable them to recover from the effects of the long jour- 
ney in transit before they are put upon the market. The 
owner secures the services of a commission house located 
at the market. From the said firm he gets information 
from time to time as to the needs of the market. He is 
then enabled to forward selected animals from time to 
time in carload lots in the line of the needs of the mar- 
ket. In this way he secures the best returns obtainable 



DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 365 

for the shipments forwarded. If some of the sheep or 
lambs are not yet ready to be sent to the market, the 
opportunity is furnished to feed them longer. 

Some of the growers of sheep thus virtually maintain 
two feeding stations. One is located in the country near 
to the pastures where the sheep are grown and where the 
necessary fattening foods are obtainable, and the other is 
not distant from the place of final disposal. Sheep grown 
on the ranges are thus fattened in some of the mountain 
valleys of the West, where alfalfa and the coarse grains 
can be produced abundantly through the aid of irrigating 
waters from the mountain streams. Marketable lambs 
four days in transit and weighing 50 to 100 pounds will 
shrink about seven to eight pounds ; one-year wethers 
weighing about 120 pounds, about 10 pounds; and aged 
wethers and ewes, about 12 pounds. The shorter the 
period of transit the greater relatively would be the 
shrinkage, and vice versa. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND 
WOLVES 

The discussions in Chapter XVIII are as follows: (i) 
How dogs and wolves affect sheep husbandry; (2) How 
dogs worry sheep; (3) Protection to sheep owners from 
legislatures; (4) Remedial legislation; (5) Protective 
measures on the farm ; (6) Why sheep do better when not 
corralled ; (7) The dog industry in the United States ; 
(8) The place for the dog in sheep husbandry ; (9) The 
losses incurred by wolves; and (10) Protective measures 
against wolves. 

How dogs and wolves affect sheep husbandry — It is 

not possible to state with precision the annual loss to 
sheep husbandry from the ravages of wolves and dogs. 
Statistics relating to these losses have not been compiled 
in a systematic way, and for the reason probably that the 
task of compiling them would not be an easy one. That 
these losses in the aggregate are very great is unques- 
tionably true. In the special report of the sheep indus- 
try of the United States published by the United States 
department of agriculture in 1892, it is stated that the 
loss from dogs alone in Ohio was placed at $152,034 and 
in Missouri at $200,000. In Bulletin No. 20 of the biolog- 
ical survey of the United States department of agricul- 
ture, it is stated that the average animal loss from wolves 
reported from several of the range states has been 5 per 
cent, and that in some areas the losses incurred by wolves 
and other wild animals, chiefly the former, has been as 
much as 20 per cent. It would seem correct to say that 
the loss incurred from these two sources is greater than 
the loss resulting from disease. 

S66 



PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 367 

The direct loss from the ravages of dogs and wolves 
is probably far less than the indirect loss resulting there- 
from, which means the adverse influence which these 
losses exert upon the extension of the industry. During 
recent years especially the demand for mutton has greatly 
increased, while the increase in the number of sheep 
grown has made but little advance for many years. The 
number of sheep in the United States in 1884 is officially 
stated as 50,626,626, and in 1907 as 53,240,282. The in- 
crease in the 23 years included has been only 2,613,656. 
In Great Britain the number of sheep kept at the present 
time is about half as many as are maintained in all the 
states of the Union. In the older states where sheep hus- 
bandry has declined, as, for instance, in New England, 
the losses incurred by vagrant dogs is the reason usually 
given by the farmers for the lessened numbers of the 
sheep kept. In some of the range states during recent 
years the number of the sheep kept has grown less, and 
one reason most commonly given is the loss resulting 
from the presence of wolves. 

At the present time it is not possible to state whether 
the actual loss from dogs or wolves is the greater loss. 
Viewed from the standpoint of the hindrance to exten- 
sion in sheep husbandry, however, there can be no ques- 
tion that the former exert the greater influence. The 
greatest relative increase in the numbers of sheep kept in 
the future should come from the arable rather than from 
the range states ; hence the great importance of protective 
measures in these against the ravages of dogs. 

While the losses incurred from the ravages of wolves 
have been very serious, and are even now, it can scarcely 
be said that these could have been prevented in the past. 
The same is not true, however, of the losses resulting 
from the attacks of dogs. In great measure they could 
have been prevented. That they have not been prevented 
is little less than a blot upon our civilization. That the 
farmers have not risen in resistless protest against the in- 



368 iMANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

difference shown by legislators to these losses is not cred- 
itable to their manhood; that legislatures have so fre- 
quently trifled with the remedial measures proposed is not 
creditable to their patriotism. 

How dogs worry sheep — The night season is the time 
usually chosen by dogs for worrying sheep, but in some 
instances they will not refrain from attacking them in the 
day. The problem of devising means that will enable the 
farmers who keep sheep to receive compensation for the 
loss sustained is much complicated by this habit in the 
dogs to make their attacks in the night season. It makes 
it practically impossible to know whose dogs did the mis- 
chief. But even though this could be known, and though 
the law made provision that the owners of the sheep 
should be given full compensation by the owners of the 
dogs, in very many instances the owners of the latter 
would be unable to make payment. More commonly the 
slaughtering of the sheep is done by vagrant dogs owned 
by people who are too poor and frequently too negligent 
also to provide proper food for them. The exceptions, 
however, are not few, for dogs that are well fed will some- 
times worry sheep. It has even been claimed that shep- 
herd dogs have been known to worry sheep, but such 
instances, if they happened, are extremely rare. 

In some instances dogs will worry sheep though 
alone. More commonly, however, they make the attack 
when in pairs or trios. They sometimes go for a con- 
siderable distance in search of a flock. They will not only 
attack sheep in the open field, but will also attack them 
when yarded, if the yard or corral is accessible. When 
attacked in the yard or corral the slaughter is usually 
very great. But the same is true in some instances in 
the open field, as the surrounding fence makes it impossi- 
ble for them to get away. 

The power of dogs to worry sheep is very great. In 
some instances, more especially when the attack is made 
by a single dog, it is confined to a single sheep from the 



PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 369 

carcass of which the murderer of the innocent makes a 
meal. More commonly, however, but little flesh is eaten. 
No sooner has one sheep been killed or maimed suffi- 
ciently to satisfy the dog, than he leaves it and engages 
in the chase after another. More commonly the neck is 
the favorite place of attack, but the attacks are by no 
means confined to that part of the animal. In some in- 
stances the slaughter is only stayed when the dogs have 
become too exhausted to carry it on longer. Two dogs 
have been known to kill and maim more than 100 sheep 
in one of those nocturnal carnivals of slaughter. 

It is almost impossible to prove the identity of the 
dogs, even though they should be caught at the nefarious 
work in the broad light of day. Assured identity of a dog 
seen at a distance is not easy, and owing to their swift- 
ness when pursued, it is usually impossible to follow them 
to the home of the owner. In a few instances strong cir- 
cumstantial evidence may be obtained against a dog sus- 
pected of guilt, by wool hairs adhering to the teeth or 
blood marks around the jaws, but the danger exists that 
the fact of making such an examination may create hard 
feelings by men who have been neighbors. 

The loss in a flock of sheep that have been worried 
by dogs is by no means all represented, as a rule, by the 
number of the sheep killed or wounded. The injury to 
the surviving numbers of the flock is such that the profit 
that would otherwise have accrued is much reduced. This 
arises from the ill-doing for a considerable period at least 
following the attack. This ill-doing is probably the out- 
come in part at least of the severe shock given to the 
nervous system arising from fright. 

Protection by legislative enactment — From what has 
been said it will be apparent that in the absence of legis- 
lation bearing upon compensation to the owners of sheep 
attacked by dogs, it will be impossible for them to secure 
such compensation. Such legislation has usually been 
difficult to obtain, for reasons given below. It has sel- 



3/0 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

dom proved entirely satisfactory when attempted, and in 
some instances where such legislation has been attempted 
it has been subsequently repealed. The fact remains, 
nevertheless, that an industry so important to the mate- 
rial interests of the state should be protected. The diffi- 
culty usually met with in securing legislation on the sub- 
ject arises in part from the far greater numerical strength 
of those who keep dogs and no sheep than of those who 
keep sheep. Some legislators at least recognize this fact, 
and, doing so, they are slow to support a measure that 
may alienate supporters. It also arises in part from the ex- 
treme difficulty in framing legislation that will give jus- 
tice to all and that will give oppression to none. 

It would seem to be true, however, that the strongest 
reason for opposing such legislation is found in the 
strength of the sporting instinct in many legislators and 
also in many of their supporters, more especially those 
located in towne and villages. This love of hunting would 
seem to be so strong in many instances as to blunt the 
sense of justice with reference to legislation that would 
seriously interfere with conducting the sport of hunting 
on old-time lines. The dog is, in a sense, an indispensa- 
ble adjunct to successful hunting. Hence legislators 
sometimes hesitate to pass laws that may be regarded by 
those who keep hunting dogs as inimical to their interests. 

Legislation to protect from dogs — No legislation that 
has been enacted has proved entirely satisfactory. That 
system, it would seem correct to say, has proved the least 
objectionable which puts a tax on all dogs outside of cor- 
porate cities, funds the same in the county in which it 
is collected, and reimburses the owner of sheep from this 
fund in whole or in part for loss incurred by dogs. In 
very many instances the owners of dogs conceal them 
when the assessment is being taken, and in some in- 
stances deny the presence of their existence, and in this 
way they are not listed for taxing. The system has been 
objected to, first, because it taxes useful and useless dogs 



PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 37I 

alike; second, because the fund collected does not in all 
instances cover the loss ; and third, because in some coun- 
ties practically no sheep are reared. 

Because of these and other objections, law^s that have 
been passed to protect sheep from dogs have in several 
instances been repealed. The cities have laws or by-laws 
relating to dogs, hence they are beyond the jurisdiction 
of the counties, and so cannot be reached by enactments 
in these, and yet many of the losses incurred result from 
the attacks of city dogs. 

Whether legislation will yet be enacted that will 
prove more effective remains to be seen. As long as the 
sentiment that exalts the sport of hunting to a higher 
plane than sheep husbandry remains, remedial legislation 
to protect sheep will not be easily obtained. That the 
industry ought to be thus protected, however, cannot for 
one moment be questioned. The agitation for it, there- 
fore, should never cease until it is obtained. 

Protective measures on the farm — In the absence of 
adequate protection from the legislature, the sheep own- 
er can adopt protective measures that will go far to in- 
sure safety for his sheep. Even when legislation has been 
enacted it may be fitly supplemented by the adoption of 
such measures. These include protection furnished by 
bells, by goats, by corrals, by fences, by firearms and 
by poison. 

It has been claimed that putting bells in large num- 
bers on sheep will afford protection against dogs and also 
against wolves. That protection to some extent has thus 
been afforded is probably true, but whether such protec- 
tion would in all instances prove adequate is at least an 
open question. The effectiveness would doubtless be in- 
fluenced, first by the size of the flock, and, second, by the 
extent to which it is equipped with bells. It has been the 
practice of some flockmasters to furnish from 25 to 50 
per cent of the flock with bells. 

In some instances the presence of "billy" goats in the 



■^^2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

flock, that is of male goats, has to some extent furnished 
protection to sheep from dogs. Such protection, how- 
ever, in large flocks will not always prove adequate, as 
the flock not infrequently divides into groups in large 
pastures, and in some of these the goats may be absent 
when the dogs attack the sheep. Nor is it by any means 
certain that male goats will always prove effective in the 
fight with dogs when they are present. The same may be 
said of Dorset males, though in some instances they may 
drive away timid dogs. Even ewes with young lambs will 
sometimes fight dogs in defence of their young, but usu- 
ally they prove quite unequal to conducting such a con- 
test. 

The corral is a sure means of protection for sheep at 
night when the inclosure is properly made. When the 
fence is inadequate to keep out dogs, the corral only 
tends to facilitate the slaughter when dogs get inside. 
To the sheep in such an event it becomes a veritable death 
trap. To yarding sheep in corrals there are also some 
objections as shown below. 

One of the surest and most effective ways of protect- 
ing sheep against dogs is by fencing the pastures so 
that dogs cannot enter them. A fence constructed as fol- 
lows will protect against dogs : Set posts 8 feet long, say 
one rod apart, and sunk 3 feet into the ground. Along 
these stretch barbed wire just at the surface of the 
ground, say, 3 inches ; above this stretch a strip of woven 
wire 36 inches broad and with mesh not exceeding 5 
inches. Six inches above the woven wire stretch a barb 
wire ; 6 inches higher stretch another and ^Yi inches 
higher still a third. The fence will thus be 5 feet from the 
ground to the top of the barb wire. A strip of strong 
wood 2x1 inches, placed erect and midway between the 
posts, and to which the wires are stapled, will prevent 
them from sagging. A wire woven up and down at the 
same place will effect the same end. The bottom wire is 
intended to prevent the dogs from crawling under. 



PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 373 

Should any runways pass under the fence, these will need 
special attention. The gates must also be carefully made 
and put in place. These may be of wire similar to that 
used in building the fence, but which, of course, should 
be carefully stayed between the headpiece and the end- 
piece of the gate. A fence thus built will be quite suit- 
able for inclosing a corral. 

Protection by means of firearms may not in all in- 
stances be in strict accord with the letter of the law, and 
disobedience to law very seldom finds justification. But 
when a dog visits the property of another unattended by 
an owner he is a trespasser. The law relating to trespass 
usually forbids such visitation of any member of the 
human family without the concurrence of the owner of 
the land. Should domestic animals, as, for instance, the 
horse and the cow, invade property, the law usually makes 
provision for impounding them. Why, then, should a 
dog be given license to go v^^here other domestic animals 
and even man himself cannot go without permission? The 
dog cannot be impounded. The only protection against 
his undesirable presence is that which sends him to the 
shades of non-existence. It would be difficult, indeed, 
to find a court that would punish a man who would thus 
protect himself against trespass. 

Protection by means of poison is justified on the 
same ground as protection by means of firearms. The 
reasons which sustain the one method of dealing with 
dogs will also sustain the other. Dogs are much more 
easily poisoned than wolves (see page 382), as they are 
much less wary and suspicious. A piece of meat charged 
with strychnine trailed across a field and left in a suit- 
able place will usually lure dogs to their death who in- 
vade that field. In the absence of legislation to protect 
sheep from dogs measures thus heroic will furnish a con- 
siderable degree of protection. 

The corral and its place — A corral, as is generally 
known, is a roofless inclosure into which sheep are 



374 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

brought for safe keeping for the night. The protection 
sought is against dogs and beasts of prey. On the arable 
farm where the sheep are corraled at night the yard and 
the shed which opens into it is usually made to serve the 
purposes of a corral. On the range this is frequently im- 
practicable ; in fact, it is so usually during the grazing sea- 
son, owing to the distance of the grazing grounds from 
the sheds. 

A corral is always a necessity on the open range, as 
under such conditions the danger is always more or less 
present that the flock may be preyed upon by beasts of 
prey. When the range is very large, it may be necessary 
to have more than one corral. Of course, on the arable 
farm such increased protection is never necessary, un- 
less the sheep should be kept during a part of the grazing 
season on pastures too distant to admit of driving them to 
the home corral. 

Although the corral is indispensable under many 
conditions of sheep husbandry, it is nevertheless a 
hindrance in some respects to the production attainable 
were it not necessary to corral the sheep. It calls for 
travel that would not otherwise be necessary ; it fosters 
to some extent the spread of disease should it be present 
in the flock, and it prevents the sheep from grazing as 
they otherwise would in the coolest portion of the day. 

When sheep are sustained by grazing alone, they get 
all the exercise they need when taking their food, and 
should the pasture be sparse, they get more than they 
need. Every additional step taken beyond the require- 
ments of health is taken at the expense of flesh, hence the 
more distant that the corral is from the pastures, the 
greater is the loss from such journeying. The aim should 
be, therefore, to so locate the corral that unnecessary 
time on the part of the sheep would be prevented. This 
may call for the construction of more than one corral 
on large grazing grounds. The other conditions to be 
considered in locating a corral include: (i) Protection 



PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 375 

from wind such as is provided by a bluff or grove; (i) 
ground with sufficient slope to keep the corral dry; and 
(3) proximity to water for the sheep and also the shep- 
herd, who usually lodges in a little shack near to the 
corral. On the arable farm sheep accustomed to the cor- 
ral will come to the same at nightfall as the outcome of 
habit. The way is left open for them to do so. On the 
range they are, of course, accompanied by the shepherd. 

Should disease be present in the flock, the spread of 
the same is facilitated by corraling at night. Crowding 
the sheep into close quarters, of course, brings them into 
closer contact with certain forms of disease which are 
communicable in the germ form and in other forms. 
Sheep in small flocks and possessed of large liberty 
always thrive better than those kept under conditions 
the opposite. 

The most objectionable feature to the corral is that 
it deprives sheep of the opportunity to graze during those 
times which are most favorable for such grazing, espe- 
cially in warm weather. When sheep can lie out on the 
pastures they will invariably graze in the cool of the even- 
ing, and in some instances on into the night. In the early 
morning they again start out to gather feed while the 
grasses are wet with dew. Such grazing in the cool of 
the day allows the sheep to take more rest in the heat 
of the day than would otherwise be possible, which adds 
much to their thrift. 

When they are driven nightly to the corral in large 
bands, they feed more or less on the way in and out, 
especially when going out in the morning. Because of 
this the grazing becomes bare within a considerable dis- 
tance of the corral. When this happens in proximity to 
the quarters in which the sheep are wintered it is so far 
unfortunate as it tends so far to deprive the sheep of 
grazing during the open weather of winter. To avoid 
such a result the aim should be, on the range, to have the 
summer corral distant from winter quarters. 



376 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Notwithstanding these drawbacks to the corral, it is 
an absolute necessity in the range country because of the 
hazard from wild animals. Were it not for the hazard 
from dogs, it would seldom be a necessity on the farm, 
hence the cost and labor of protecting sheep in the corral 
and the loss resulting therefrom is nearly all to be 
charged against the mischief wrought by dogs. 

Dogs in the United States — In the absence of care- 
fully compiled statistics, it would not be possible to state 
with definiteness the number of the dogs maintained in 
the United States. Unquestionably it runs far into the 
millions. The assessors' returns show that in many coun- 
ties in a large proportion of the arable states the number 
of the dogs far exceeds that of the number of the sheep. 
Furthermore, it would seem safe to say that 19 out of each 
20 of the dogs kept are of no use whatever save to amuse 
children generally and a certain class of women. It 
would be interesting to know the cost of food for dogs 
in the United States. Owing to the concentrated food 
called for by dogs, the cost of keeping each dog is several 
times the cost of keeping each sheep. The cost of food 
for large dogs is not so very much less than the cost of 
food for the average child. A very large proportion of 
the dogs kept are owned by the poor; hence, in maintain- 
ing them, if they are to be properly maintained, they are 
not infrequently given food that should be given instead 
to the children of the household. More frequently they 
are not properly fed. and because of this they must gather 
food by scouring the country as scavengers, hence the 
source of many of the depredations which they commit 
while so engaged. It would seem probable that the cost 
of maintaining dogs in the United States is greater than 
the cost of maintaining sheep in the same. In other 
words, the United States pays more per annum for main- 
taining the greatest hindrance that exists to the sheep 
industry than it does to sustain that industry. This does 
not mean that the children of the home are not to enjoy 



TROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 2il7 

the comfort which the household dog brings to them, that 
the home is not to enjoy the protection of a watch dog, 
or that the lover of sport is not to have his hunting dog; 
but it does mean that those who keep dogs are morally 
bound, and should be legally bound, so far as laws can 
bind them, to keep their dogs from worrying the farmers' 
sheep. 

The great amount of the waste thus incurred in main- 
taining useless dogs is the least part of the loss. It is 
small in comparison with the loss sustained by the nation 
in the extent to which the attacks of dogs hinder the 
extension of what should be one of the greatest industries 
which the nation possesses. 

The dog in sheep husbandry — The dog has his place 
in sheep husbandry, and an important place it is. The 
shepherd dog is wanted to help in guiding the sheep, and 
the hunting dog is frequently wanted to aid in defending 
it. It would not be possible to care for sheep on the 
ranges in the absence of dogs, because of the size of 
the flocks. The sheep on western ranges cannot be led 
by the shepherd, as were the smaller flocks in ancient 
times. They must be driven, and it would be quite 
impracticable to drive flocks so large without the aid 
of one or more dogs. The necessity for the aid of the 
hunting dog in defending the flock is dependent upon the 
degree of the hazard to exposure incurred by proximity 
to the haunts of wild animals which prey upon it. 

The shepherd's dog is also a necessity in arable areas 
that are in a large measure unfenced, and even in areas 
where the pastures are large though fenced. A well- 
trained dog under such conditions, and also on the range, 
is far more helpful to the shepherd than even a mounted 
assistant would be. The time will never come under 
range conditions, and also under conditions that are ara- 
ble in whole or in part, when the shepherd dog can be 
entirely dispensed with. 

The true shepherd's dog furnishes a wonderful illus- 



37^^ MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

tration of the marvelous degree of the perfection of the 
development to which an animal of the canine species 
may be brought through centuries of skillful breeding 
accompanied by careful and wise training. In these re- 
spects the collie is perhaps without a rival. The prompt 
and unfailing obedience of the collie would frequently 
put to the blush the obedience of a well-trained child. 
The sagacity shown in doing its work is nothing short 
of wonderful. Its fidelity to the interests of its master 
knows no wavering. In these and also in other respects 
it would almost seem as though it were guided by reason 
rather than by instinct. More, probably, than any other 
animal does it illustrate the near approach which instinct 
may make to the realm of reason without actually invad- 
ing it. It is thus apparent that there are dogs and dogs. 

The losses incurred by wolves — In all countries 
where the opportunity occurs wolves prey upon sheep, 
and doubtless they have done so in every age. In North 
America wolves are divided into two groups, known re- 
spectively as timber wolves and coyotes. The former 
inhabit wooded areas to a far greater extent than coyotes, 
whose presence is almost entirely confined to the open 
country. 

Timber wolves are larger than coyotes. They are also 
usually larger in northern areas than in those far South. 
The color varies in different areas. In eastern Canada, it 
is a dark gray ; in the southeastern states, a dark gray or 
black ; in southern Texas, red ; in Mexico, brindled ; in the 
western range country, a light gray ; along the central 
Pacific area, dusky or black ; and in Alaska and Canada, 
far northward, it is almost white. 

Coyotes, so named by the Spaniards, are usually of 
a dirty gray, with more or less of a reddish tint about the 
head, neck and legs. The proportion of the red and black 
varies much with the different species. In size they are 
larger than a fox and smaller than the timber wolf, but 
the size varies considerably in the different species, of 



PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 379 

which there are several. They are furnished with a 
pointed muzzle, erect ears and a bushy tail. 

Timber wolves were originally distributed over all 
parts of the continent that produced forest. With the 
settlement of the country they continually recede. In the 
eastern and central states they are now entirely extinct, 
but in various areas near large tracts of forest they are 
still a source of considerable loss. This is especially true 
of northern Michigan, northern Wisconsin and northern 
Minnesota and of much of the range country, where their 
former prey, the buffalo, is not found any more. They 
frequently make their dens in lonely places in the open 
country. Coyotes inhabit all the range country from the 
Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean and from Athabasca 
on the north to Costa Rica on the south. In nearly all 
the range country they are as numerous as when the 
country was first occupied, and in some areas have in- 
creased, notwithstanding the efforts that have been made 
to destroy them. The explanation is found in the in- 
creased food supplies which civilization has made accessi- 
ble to them. 

The idea that forest reserves in the range states are 
largely accountable for the presence of wolves is not true, 
as in the mountain areas they are not found, save in the 
summer season where live stock are driven up to higher 
altitudes to graze. They breed in the foothills. Fre- 
quently the dens are located near washed-out places along 
the sides of streams or under rocks in side hills. Some- 
times the dens are enlarged from holes made by badgers 
or other wild animals. In many instances the view from 
elevations near the dens extends over a large area, hence 
the approach of an intruder is almost impossible without 
discovery. The breeding season varies with the climate, 
but in the central west it occurs in April, and by August 
the young wolves are able to shift for themselves. 
Wolves breed but once a year. The period of gestation 



380 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

is about 63 days. The litters number, say, from four to 
eight each. 

Wolves usually hunt from sunset to sunrise, but in 
some instances they search for prey in the daytime. They 
live almost entirely on animal food. The smaller species 
live largely on v^ild game, but they also prey upon 
domestic fowl of all kinds, lambs and young swine. Of 
wild game they prey upon such birds as quail, grouse, 
wild ducks and the eggs of these at the breeding sea- 
son, and such animals as mice, gophers, ground squirrels, 
chipmunks, woodchucks, prairie dogs, rabbits and even 
house cats. In addition to the above the large species 
of coyotes prey upon sheep, goats, calves, and various 
species of deer. In winter they will invade towns, getting 
food from the offal of slaughterhouses and other sources. 
Timber wolves prey upon such animals as sheep, goats, 
hogs, calves, cattle and horses. They seldom attack 
herded animals. 

Coyotes, when looking for their prey, are much prone 
to hide behind bushes or in the long grass near to the 
paths which the smaller wild animals frequently journey 
over and pounce upon them when they are passing. When 
they attack domestic animals they of necessity have to 
come more or less into the open. They will seize a lamb 
or a young pig by the back and carry it away. When 
preying upon mature sheep on the range they give chase 
to the animal, tear out a piece of flesh, and then fre- 
quently leave it, and likewise give chase to another. 
When tired they make their night meal upon one of the 
carcases. As many as a score of lambs have been killed 
by a wolf in a single night. It has been claimed that one 
family of wolves have been known to destroy live stock 
worth not less than $3,000 in a single year. Frequently 
they hunt alone, but sometimes in small bands. 

The losses to sheep owners incurred by wolves is 
very large in the aggregate. It occurs not only in all the 
range states, but in the states more or less adjacent to 



PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 38 1 

these which are largely under cultivation. These losses 
meanwhile do not grow less, especially in areas inhabited 
by coyotes. 

The extent of the loss in domestic animals from 
wolves has been put at five to 20 per cent. Even in the 
Bad Lands of North Dakota, which are not distant from 
cultivated areas, as much as 15 per cent of the live stock 
has been destroyed by wolves in a single season. The 
total losses incurred in Wyoming in the heart of the wolf 
country have been estimated at more than $1,000,000 a 
year. To this loss must be added the adverse influence 
which the proximity of wolves exerts upon farmers and 
ranchmen, many of whom would keep sheep but for the 
fear of the loss that might follow. Those losses will 
assuredly grow less in time as the country becomes more 
completely occupied. 

Protective measures against wolves — The following 
are among the protective measures adopted when seeking 
to shield sheep from the attacks of wolves : (i) The use of 
bells; (2) the setting of traps; (3) the use of poison; (4) 
the offering of bounties; (5) the agency of organized 
hunting; and (6) the agency of fencing. 

When a considerable proportion of the sheep in a 
flock are furnished with bells, there can be no doubt that 
for a time at least the bells will furnish some measure of 
protection, as in the case of dogs (see page 371). It is 
extremely probable, however, that in time the bells would 
cease to frighten the wolves as at the first, and would 
so far cease to protect. That ranchmen have not made 
any extensive or general use of this means of protection 
would indicate that they have no large measure of faith 
in its effectiveness. In arable areas, where coyotes are 
naturally more timid and wary than on the range, such 
protection will probably be found more effective. Coyotes 
are so wary and suspicious that they are not easily caught 
in traps, and this wariness increases with increasing near- 
ness to the haunts of man. Nearly all the coyotes caught 



382 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

by this method are under one year old, indicating clearly 
that wariness increases with age in the wolves. They 
are sometimes trapped without bait, and sometimes with 
it. In the former instances the traps are sunk level with 
the ground in a narrow trail, as in an opening between 
bushes, and the chain and trap covered, but not too 
deeply, with leaves and grass. In the latter they are 
usually placed near a wolf trail, and are likewise con- 
cealed with leaves or grass. Bait is left near in large 
or small chunks. It should be trailed some distance if 
practicable from the saddle horse a couple of days after 
the traps have been set, to put the wolves on the scent. 
It should be put in place from the saddle. Some trappers 
rub their hands on tainted meat or with some scent as oil 
of anise before handling wolf bait. Nothing less than 
what is known as a number four double spring trap 
should be used and the chain should be correspondingly 
strong and attached to the trap with a swivel. The chain 
should be securely wired to an anchor, as a fallen timber, 
a strong bush or twisted iron stakes driven down below 
the surface of the ground. Success in trapping is in no 
slight degree dependent on the use of scents that will 
attract the wolves. Musk has proved effective in a con- 
siderable degree. Asafoetida is less effective. Urine 
taken from the wolf's bladder is probably more effective 
than either. 

Wolves are not easily poisoned, as they will not 
readily consume any food which has been handled by 
man. Coyotes are more suspicious regarding such food 
than timber wolves, and are, therefore, less readily poi- 
soned. They may be poisoned in some instances by drop- 
ping, preferably from the saddle, small chunks of poi- 
soned meat, preferably fat, along a trail. Strychnine 
about the size of a walnut is almost the only poison used, 
and in the pure sulphate form. The strychnine, as crystals 
or capsules, should be inserted in the meat with a knife 
blade. Four grains are enough for a mature wolf. The 



PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 383 

pieces of meat should be handled with gloves and may- 
be carried in a pail. They are best dropped along a 
scented drag line, made by dragging a piece of hide or a 
dead rabbit, bleeding more or less, over the ground or 
along a wolf trail, or they may be put under carcasses on 
which wolves are feeding. In some instances wolves will 
dig up poisoned bait and eat it, when they would not 
touch it if exposed. Young wolves are much more readily 
poisoned than old ones. 

For many years past bounties have been offered for 
wolf skins in all or nearly all the states infected by 
wolves. These state bounties have ranged from 25 cents 
upward, seldom falling below $2 for a young wolf skin, 
and in some instances amounting to several times that 
sum for a grown female. These have been supplemented 
by bounties paid by live stock associations and the owners 
of live stock. These supplementary bounties have raised 
the earnings of the hunter to not less than $15 for some 
classes of skins, and in some instances that amount has 
been exceeded. The hunter also gets from 50 cents to $6 
for the skins, according to the quality. 

Enormous sums relatively have been paid out in 
bounties. In California an act was passed in 1891, mak- 
ing the bounty on coyotes $57 each. During the 18 
months that the act was in force that state paid out 
$187,485 on wolf hides. In Kansas in the year following 
July I, 1903, bounties were paid on 20,000 wolf skins. The 
Standard cattle company operating in Wyoming in a 
single year paid bounties on wolves amounting to nearly 
$2,500, the bounty being $5 a hide. 

That the offering of bounties has made the number 
of wolves considerably less than it would otherwise have 
been cannot be questioned. The discouraging thing about 
it, however, is, first, that it has not gone far toward the 
extermination of wolves, and, second, that it has led to 
the fraudulent practices on the part of wolf hunters. 



3^4 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

Meantime, however, it would clearly be a mistake to cease 
to ofifer bounties for wolf hides. 

Wolf hunts are frequently conducted in various por- 
tions of the range country. Horsemen go out in different 
directions and drive the wolves toward a center, where 
they are dispatched in various ways, but chiefly by dogs. 
The most useful dogs in hunting wolves are staghounds, 
Russian wolf hounds, greyhounds and their crosses. The 
ordinary greyhound can easily overtake a coyote, but is 
usually unable to kill it unaided. Three dogs are fre- 
quently needed to successfully chase and kill a coyote. 
This method of hunting is costly in horseflesh and in the 
time of the riders, and in some instances in dogs. By 
watching near the dens before daylight old wolves may 
sometimes be shot on their return from a nocturnal trip. 
But in no way can they be destroyed so effectively and so 
easily as by capturing the young in the breeding dens. A 
spade is usually necessary as an aid to getting into the 
dens and a stout hook on the end of a stick will aid in 
getting them out of the crevices. One of the most effec- 
tive means of protecting sheep from wolves is to confine 
them within fences of suitable construction. At the first a 
few barb wires properly stretched will keep out coyotes, 
but in time these will not prove effective. For the con- 
struction of a fence that will protect, see page 372. Such 
fencing is very suitable for corrals which are indispensa- 
ble in the range country. It is costly, however, under 
ordinary range conditions, but increased revenue will 
accrue from the complete control which it gives the 
ranchman over the management of at least a portion of 
his grazing grounds. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 

The discussion in Chapter XIX dwells briefly on the 
following: (i) The prevention and treatment of disease 
in sheep ; (2) Parasites that prey externally on sheep ; 
(3) Parasites that prey internally on sheep ; (4) Ailments 
from digestive sources; (5) Ailments affecting the organs 
of respiration ; (6) Ailments arising from reproduction ; 
(7) Ailments that affect the limbs ; (8) Ailments peculiar 
to lambs ; and (9) Ailments miscellaneous in character. 

Protection and treatment of disease — Treatment for 
diseases and other ailments of sheep are very commonly 
less satisfactory than with any other class of domestic 
animals. This is probably owing: (i) To the peculiar 
location of many of the ailments that afflict sheep, which 
makes treatment unusually difficult. Such are the ail- 
ments of stomach worms, which make their abode in the 
fourth stomach ; of grub in the head, which is located in 
the nasal sinuses, so close to the brain as to be practically 
unreachable; and goiter in lambs, which is located in the 
glands of the throat. (2) To the absence of that strong 
vitality that is essential to ability to stand up sturdily for 
a time at least in the face of attack. This is evidenced in 
attacks of bloat, where the percentage of the losses under 
treatment is much larger than the percentage of losses 
from cattle that are treated for the same. (3) To the 
further fact that it would seem true that the veterinary 
profession have centered less on the study of the ail- 
ments of sheep than on those of the horse and the cow, 
since the latter are relatively more valuable. 

From what has been said it will be apparent that pre- 
ventive measures for guarding sheep against diseases will 
be doubly important. While treatment for tapeworm and 
stomach worm is difficult, and not infrequently unsatis- 

385 



386 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

factory, it is possible when selecting the foundation ani- 
mals for a flock to be practically sure that they are not 
thus affected. This may be known from the previous 
history of the flock. It is also possible to keep the flock 
away from wet pastures that favor increase in such para- 
sites when they are present. Similarly, while but little 
can be done by way of treatment for goiter, it is quite 
practicable to breed only from dams that do not usually 
give birth to lambs that are not thus affected. In other 
words, it is possible to discard for breeding uses all 
females that have given birth to lambs in which goiter 
has developed. It is also practicable to keep sheep under 
conditions that will prevent them from drinking in dirty 
pools which favor the development of nodule disease, and 
to shield them, at least measurably, from the gadfly which 
lays the egg that ultimately develops into grub in the 
head. All such preventive measures are practicable, 
while the successful treatment of some at least of the ail- 
ments of sheep is virtually an impossibility. 

While proper environment and suitable care are im- 
portant with all classes of live stock, these would seem to 
be doubly important in the case of sheep. All experience 
in the past has shown: (i) That sheep will keep much 
more healthy on dry and rolling pastures than on those 
opposite in character; (2) that pure living water is essen- 
tial to the well-being of sheep; and (3) that they do not 
stand up well under close confinement. It is certainly 
much wiser to aim to furnish such conditions than to 
neglect to furnish them and later to have to grapple with 
the ailments which their absence gives rise to. 

Proper care that will prevent troubles from arising 
in the flock is also to be greatly preferred to the necessity 
for dealing with these should they arise as the result of 
lack of care. For instance, it is vastly easier to keep sheep 
in sleeping sheds free from drafts than to cure catarrh, 
which comes as the result of exposure to drafts. It is 
much easier to furnish succulent food that wards off in- 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENIS OF SHEEP 387 

digestion than to deal with indigestion should it arise, 
and it is vastly easier to keep the farmer's flock away 
from infestation of scab mites than to deal with scab 
should it come. 

Parasites that prey externally on sheep — The prin- 
cipal of these are three in number, viz., the sheep tick, 
the scab mite and the sheep louse. Of these the scab 
mite is altogether the most harmful. The sheep tick is 
more or less in evidence wherever sheep are kept on this 
continent, but not necessarily so. The sheep louse is not 
greatly prevalent in America. 

The sheep tick (Melophagus avinmis) was Introduced 
from the Old World. It is a wingless fly. When full 
grown it is less than one-fourth of an inch long. The 
body is short, flattened and varying in color from white 
to reddish. The color, is influenced somewhat by the 
amount of blood which it has taken from the sheep. The 
ticks bear considerable resemblance to the spider in form, 
but the limbs are very much shorter. The sheep tick 
propagates by means of the eggs laid by the females. 
These are relatively large, flat and ovoid in shape and 
brown in color. Within each is an imperfectly developed 
larva. The eggs, usually spoken of in common phrase 
as "nits," are made to adhere to the wool by a sticky sub- 
stance which covers them when they are first laid. But 
one is deposited at a time, and it is thought the female 
seldom lays more than 7 or 8 eggs in her lifetime, and the 
number is probably less than the figures named, a fact 
which has an important bearing on the possible eradica- 
tion of the pest. They hatch in some instances in about 
four weeks from the time when they are laid. 

They occur on sheep at all seasons, but are usually 
most numerous and troublesome toward the approach of 
spring. They cannot live long away from the body of the 
sheep, the warmth of which seems to be essential to their 
existence in conjunction with the food which they obtain 
from it and the protection furnished by the wool. Their 



388 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

food consists wholly of blood, which they take through 
the proboscis with which they penetrate the skin. 

The injury which they inflict comes chiefly from the 
prolonged itching which follows the puncture of the skin. 
When present in large numbers, the annoyance resulting 
is very great. When the wool is removed by shearing, 
the ticks, in great measure at least, leave the old sheep. 
They either perish or become transferred to the lambs. 
To these they are oftentimes a source of great annoyance, 
because of their numbers, and also because of the greater 
ease with which they may puncture the tender skin of the 
lambs. Evidences of the discomfort are manifested in the 
extent to which they bite at themselves and rub against 
external objects. For treatment see Chapter XX. 

Sheep scab is so called from the scabs which come on 
the skin and which are the outcome of inflammation re- 
sulting from the innumerable bites of the scab mites when 
taking their food. Three classes or species of scab mites 
infest sheep. The first is known as Sarcoptcs scabici, the 
second as Chorioptcs communis and the third Psoroptcs 
communis. The first causes scab on the head the second 
scab on the feet, and the third scab on various parts of 
the body. That named last is by far the most common 
of the three and also by far the most harmful. The life 
history of the three is very similar. 

The scab mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) is so small as to be al- 
most invisible to the naked eye, but its presence may be 
known by the scabs which result and the location of these. 
They are first noticed on those portions of the head that are 
comparatively free from hair and grease, as on the upper 
lip, the nostrils and around the eyelids and ears. From 
these starting points they gradually spread over various 
parts of the head. For treatment the application of some 
one of the approved scab dips or ointments (see Chapter 
XX) will suffice in the early stages of the infection, but 
in the more advanced stages it may be necessary to first 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 389 

soften the scabs with some kind of oil or grease and then 
to remove them with soap and water. 

The mite, Chorioptcs communis, occurs so rarely that 
it is scarcely necessary to discuss it. It may be said, 
however, that it usually begins on the feet and extends 
upwards. The skin when attacked shows an inflamed 
condition followed by free scaling of the same, and this 
in turn is followed by the forming of yellowish-colored 
crusts, beneath which the parasites congregate. For- 
tunately this trouble is not readily communicated to other 
sheep, and it may be treated in the same way as Sarcoptes 
scabiei, referred to in the preceding paragraph. 

The mite, Psoroptcs communis, is by far the most 
troublesome and harmful of all the external parasites 
which prey upon sheep. The trouble resulting is now 
more commonly referred to as body scab. So great has 
been the loss resulting from its presence that legislation 
has been enacted in many countries w^ith a view to pre- 
vent its spread and in the hope of ultimately bringing 
about its eradication. Although it infests goats, com- 
munication usually comes from other sheep or from the 
quarters which they have inhabited or visited not long 
previously. 

This mite, though small, is visible to the naked eye. 
The life history of all these mites is very similar. They 
attack the external skin by biting it in search of food. 
Scabs quickly form as the result of the irritation that fol- 
lows. This irritation is thought to be, in part at least, 
the outcome of a poisonous fluid which accompanies the 
bite. Under the scabs the mites lay their eggs. These 
eggs hatch in 2 to 3 days, and the mites reach the adult 
stage in about 15 days. As each adult female lays about 
^5 eggs, the multiplication of the mites is eventually 
almost without limit, and it only leaves with the death of 
the sheep or v/ith the removal of the mites through treat- 
ment. 

The mite, Psoroptcs communis, attacks sheep of all 



390 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

classes and ages. Unlike the mite that produces head 
scab, it works underneath a covering of wool, and appar- 
ently preferably where the wool is longest. Consequently 
the autumn and winter are the most favorable to its dis- 
tribution. Other influences that favor rapid multiplica- 
tion in the mites are such as pertain to old age, to lack of 
stamina generally and to insanitary surroundings. 

The indications that point to the probable presence 
of scab are the rubbing of the sheep against external ob- 
jects and the attempts to bite themselves. Soon the coats 
become rough, taggy and ragged. Examination may 
show the insects themselves. At first when attacked by 
the scab mites minute elevations appear on. the skin 
slightly more white or yellow than the surrounding skin. 
These become so numerous at length as to unite. From 
the summit of each a watery serous fiuid exudes which 
leads eventually to covering the skin with a yellowish 
scaly layer under which the parasites hide. These sur- 
faces continually enlarge by the mites working outward. 
The mites usually begin their attacks along the back and 
carry to the neck glands and rump. They congregate 
most around the edges of the scabs. 

The losses from scab to flockmasters through the 
presence of scab in the aggregate are very great. These 
losses occur: (i) Through ill-doing on the part of the 
sheep ; (2) through loss by death which may result from 
scab directly or indirectly through disease favored by the 
enfeebled condition resulting because of the presence of 
scab ; and (3) through the cost of the curative methods 
that are necessary to free the flock from the presence of 
the mites. The suffering endured by the sheep thus at- 
tacked is exceedingly great. The mites are communicated 
by contact with tufts of wool torn from the bodies of in- 
fected sheep. In these the mites which are exposed even 
to low temperatures may live for 20 days. (For treat- 
ment see Chapter XXI). 

The sheep louse of the genus Trichodectes is not very 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 39I 

common in this country. It is a small creature about 1-25 
of an inch in length, with white body and a reddish head. 
It is found more commonly on poorly sheep and in places 
where the wool is not plentiful, as between the legs and 
body. The eggs are laid at the base of the wool fibers. 
When numerously present their bite leads to a roughened 
scabby skin, which induces discomfort, shown by the at- 
tempt to scratch and bite the affected parts. The remedy 
is the same as for ticks (see Chapter XXI). 

Parasites that prey internally on sheep — The more 
harmful of these are : The stomach worm, tapeworm, lung 
worm, the worm that is associated with nodule disease 
and grub in the head. These do not include nearly all the 
parasites of this class, but those not included seldom lead 
to serious loss in the flocks. 

The stomach zvorm (Haemouchus contortiis) leads to 
greater loss in the flock, and mainly through the loss of 
lambs, than any other ailment that affects the sheep of 
this continent. It is a small hairlike worm that inhabits 
the fourth stomach of sheep and goats. When present 
they may be found in all stages of growth in the same. 
Immediately after the slaughter of an infested lamb they 
may be found adhering by their heads to the mucous 
membrane, and oftentimes in immense numbers. At such 
a time they are of a reddish color. This may result in 
part at least from their feeding on the blood of the vic- 
tim. This parasite has doubtless been brought from the 
Old World. It has long been more or less prevalent in 
the southwestern states and territories, where it was 
called lomhriz, a corruption of the Spanish word lombrici, 
which means worms. It now gives more or less trouble 
in all or nearly all the states of the Union and the prov- 
inces of Canada. 

It is not always easy to distinguish between the 
symptoms present resulting from stomach worms as com- 
pared with those resulting from the presence of some 
other parasites. Prominent among these, however, are 



392 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

an emaciated condition, a pale skin, a dry harsh coat, a 
moping gait and diarrhea. One of the surest evidences, 
however, when it is present, is the small white worm in 
the droppings. Usually no positive symptoms occur un- 
til after the lambs have been afifected for some time. 
When death occurs, it is generally soon after the symp- 
toms have become prominent. The trouble alTects old 
sheep as well, but they are much less harmed than lambs 
by the presence of the worms. Death from this source 
occurs mainly among lambs that have access to pastures 
at a somewhat early age. 

The life history of the stomach worm is in outline as 
follows : The worms occur in largest numbers in the 
fourth stomach of the sheep. In the adult sexual stage 
they are able to live and carry out their reproductive 
functions only in the alimentary canal of sheep and some 
other ruminants. Each female produces thousands of 
eggs very diminutive in size. They pass out of the in- 
testines with the feces. In a few hours, days or weeks, 
according to the temperature, they hatch out, if not killed 
by drying or freezing. The tiny embryonic worms then 
develop to what may be termed the final larval or infec- 
tious stage. This period of development requires days or 
weeks, according to the temperature. In the infectious 
stage they can withstand long periods of drought and 
cold. When in that stage they are most active in the 
presence of moisture, as during wet weather or when 
dews and fogs abound they crawl up grass blades and 
thus readily reach the stomach of sheep and lambs. In 
some instances they must develop very quickly, as they 
are found in lambs in immense numbers that are less than 
three months old. 

This theory of the source and manner of infection 
finds support in experiments conducted by the author at 
the Minnesota station. When the lambs were confined 
to the sheds and fed on soiling foods to supplement the 
milk of the dams, they were free from attack ; whereas the 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 393 

previous year the loss of lambs produced by the same 
dams, though grazed on the same pastures, was serious. 
It is true, nevertheless, as experiment has shown, that in- 
fection is possible when both dams and lambs are con- 
fined to the pens, but it is not likely to occur in any con- 
siderable degree. When guarding against this disease, 
preventive measures are greatly important. These in- 
clude : (i) Using great care when introducing the founda- 
tion stock on which the future flock is to be built; (2) 
grazing lambs on new rather than old pastures while they 
are young; (3) changing the pastures frequently; (4) 
sustaining vigor in the lambs by feeding nourishing foods 
to them; (5) giving food in racks and water in troughs 
when practicable. When choosing the material on which 
to found a flock, if the assurance is present that no indica- 
tions of stomach worm have ever visited the flock, it is, 
in a sense, certain that introductions from that flock will 
not bring stomach worms with them, especially if the 
flock is one that has been long established and has not 
recently been reinforced from outside sources. It will 
also be necessary to proceed in the same cautious manner 
should materials be brought in subsequently from outside 
sources to reinforce the flock. While introducing the 
lambs to new pastures will not in itself be a guaranty 
against invasion, it will lessen the hazard, and this will 
be still further reduced if the pastures are grown from 
cereals sown purposely to make them. The lambs do not 
graze these so closely as they would old pastures, espe- 
cially when the herbage is plentiful ; hence they are less 
liable to invasion by the parasites. Such pastures are also 
much less liable to be infested by the larvae. If the lambs 
come quite early in the season, especially in northern 
areas, they will be so far grown that they will be more re- 
sistant to the sapping influences resulting from the pres- 
ence of the worms. If the lambs are to be maintained 
within the yards while the old sheep go out to the pas- 
tures this process will be facilitated by giving the lambs 



394 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

food within a creep and then removing the dams from the 
yards while they are eating. If the lambs are to remain 
with the dams, it is specially important that the latter 
shall be put onto fresh grazing at the time of turning 
them out to graze. When the pastures are changed fre- 
quently, the lambs are much less liable to take up the 
germs than when they graze closely. If the lambs are 
fed heavily on supplemental foods, they are much less 
liable to succumb to the attacks of the disease. This is 
probably owing to the greater power of resistance which 
the liberal feeding brings to them. Such foods as oilcake 
and oats are well suited to such feeding. Where the fod- 
der is fed in racks rather than on the ground, the hazard 
of taking up the germs is obviated, and the same is true 
when the water also is pumped up from wells into 
troughs from which it is taken by the sheep. 

Several remedies have been used which have proved 
at least reasonably effective when properly administered. 
The two that stand high in favor at the present time are 
known as the turpentine and gasoline treatments respec- 
tively. Of these the latter is now more commonly used. 
The spirits of turpentine is best given as an emulsion, 
obtained by mixing it with milk. The dose for a lamb 
three to four months old is a teaspoonful of turpentine in 
about six times the quantity of milk. The two should be 
well mixed, which is accomplished by shaking the com- 
bination. The gasoline is given in flaxseed tea of thin 
consistency or sweet milk. The dose is from one tea- 
spoonful to one tablespoonful, according to the age and 
size of the animal to be treated. The gasoline is poured 
into a bottle containing 4 ounces of the tea or milk. Two 
teaspoonfuls of the gasoline are required for a 50-pound 
lamb. The two are well shaken before being adminis- 
tered. A small measuring glass, known as a graduate, 
should be used in measuring the ingredients. This treat- 
ment has practically superseded the turpentine and also 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 395 

the benzine treatment, popular at one time, being cheaper 
than either and at least as effective. 

When given the treatment, the animals should be 
yarded and fed in the early evening. The treatment 
should be administered the next morning at a late hour 
on an empty stomach. They should be thus managed 
from day to day during the continuance of the treatments. 
It is recommended that three treatments should follow on 
as many consecutive days, especially in the case of the 
lambs. In cases of very serious infection the lambs 
should be again dosed once a week, and all the lambs in 
the flock should be treated. The ewes should also be 
treated, but not necessarily to the same extent as the 
lambs. 

Sheep are drenched from a horn or a stout glass 
drenching bottle. Two persons are called for to accom- 
plish the work. One throws the sheep on its buttock and 
holds it between his legs with the back toward him. The 
lower jaw is held in his left hand, which raises the head 
to the level of the line of the back, but not higher. The 
right hand may grasp the upper jaw or pull outward the 
pouch of the side of the jaws. The other places the mouth 
of the drenching bottle well up against the roof of the 
mouth and pours slowly, to avoid strangling. A moderate 
amount of the mixture is better than a large amount, as 
it is more completely retained in the fourth stomach. 
During recent years, administering the drench to sheep 
while they are in a standing posture has grown rapidly 
in favor, and the practice is sustained by some good 
reasons. 

Some shepherds feed certain mixtures as antidotes 
during more or less of the year. Tobacco dust has been 
fed along with sulphur, copperas and salt. Others feed 
proprietary worm powders. The evidences in favor of 
the value of such feeding are far from being completely 
convincing. 

The tapeworm (Taenia expansa), though not as harm- 



396 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ful to sheep in America as the stomach worm, especially 
in tillable areas is frequently a source of very great loss 
to the flockmaster. Introduced from Europe, it is now 
virtually distributed over all parts of the United States 
and Canada. Although found at all seasons, it is usually 
most troublesome in the late spring, summer and autumn. 
Some seasons it is epizootic, as it were, especially among 
lambs, but it may also cause loss among yearlings. Damp 
moist weather and heavy and moist soil conditions are 
more favorable to its spread than conditions the opposite. 
Among the symptoms of the disease are the following: 
The lambs become emaciated, notwithstanding liberal 
feeding. The mucous membranes become pale, which has 
led to the designation "paper skin" sometimes applied to 
the disease. The wool becomes dry and harsh from want 
of the usual yolk supply. They take more and more a 
woebegone appearance, accompanied by a moping and 
staggering gait. The symptoms are in many respects 
like those accompanying the invasion of stomach worms. 
They may be distinguished from the latter after the dis- 
ease has made some progress by the presence of the small 
white oblong segments of the worms, which are voided 
by the afifected animals. These adhere to the pellets of 
the droppings, also to the wool and dirt around the tail 
head. As the trouble progresses diarrhea becomes more 
and more pronounced, and the animals affected frequently 
die from exhaustion. Other troubles may also attack them 
in their weakened condition and hasten the end. The 
desire for food and drink may increase rather than dimin- 
ish until near the end. The life history is, in substance, 
as follows : The embryos pass from sheep to sheep, but 
through an intermediary, as. for instance, the dog. It is 
believed that they are taken in the food when grazing, and 
especially on short pastures, and also in the water when 
they may drink from pools or ponds. They develop 
rapidly by producing segments at the rear end which be- 
come broader and shorter as growth progresses. The 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 397 

eggs are developed within the segments. When mature 
they are shed in the excrement. The time of growth oc- 
cupies from two to three months. The number present 
may run all the way from, say, two or three to lOO, but 
more commonly they seldom exceed half a dozen in one 
animal. The adult worm is about 15 feet long. The 
width varies from 1-25 of an inch at the head to ^ of an 
inch at the other extremity. The thickness varies from 
i-io to 1-12 of an inch, but these measures are subject to 
wide variations. The large growth so fills the small in- 
testines that they obstruct the digestive processes while 
they abstract nutriment from the food materials present 
for growth. The disease is present to some extent 
through all the year, but it is chiefly harmful to lambs 
and during the first two or three months of grazing. 
Worms have been found in lambs two to four months 
old from 6 to 15 feet long, so rapidly do they grow. After 
sheep pass the age of 18 months they seldom die from 
tapeworm, but they harbor the parasites more or less. 
The chief losses are with lambs under the age of six 
months, and they give more trouble in wet seasons and 
on damp pastures than under conditions the opposite. As 
in the case of stomach worms, preventive measures are 
more efficacious than treatment. These are practically 
the same as for stomach worms (see page 393). Where 
it can be done, confining the lambs to the sheds or corrals 
until near the weaning season is a very sure means of 
protection. This is most easily accomplished with lambs 
that come early in the season. 

The treatment for the worm is in many respects sim- 
ilar to that given in the case of stomach worms (see 
page 394), but other treatment is sometimes resorted to. 
Formerly a decoction of pumpkin seeds was used as treat- 
ment, but the materials for making it are not easy to 
obtain in large quantity in the spring of the year. An- 
other and equally effective remedy is two drams of male 
fern given in two to four ounces of castor oil, or two 



398 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

drams of powdered areca nut and one dram of male fern 
given in four ounces of syrup. The above is the dose 
for a large lamb and a shearling. For sheep the dose 
should be increased from 50 to 100 per cent. It is given 
in the morning after an all-night fast. Large lambs and 
yearlings must be treated before weakness is marked. 

The fringed tapeworm (Taenia fimbriata) is very con- 
siderably harmful to sheep south of the parallel 45 degrees 
north and in much of the area west of the Mississippi River. 
The parasites are found in the duodenum and the gall 
ducts. They are frequently very numerously present and 
are of various sizes, thus indicating continued invasion. 
They develop very slowly. The life history is not fully 
known, hence the most effective methods of dealing with 
the evil are not known. Preventive measures such as are 
used in the case of stomach worms will be helpful (see 
page 393)- 

Lung zvorms in sheep are of two kinds. These are 
known respectively as the hair lung worm and the thread 
lung worm. The former of these is probably the more 
widely diffused, but the latter is more epizootic in flocks 
than the former. The hair lung worm penetrates the air 
passages of the lungs to their termination. The thread 
lung worm penetrates the bronchial tubes. The symp- 
toms of these ailments and also the life history of the 
worms is not greatly different. 

The hair lung worm (Strongylus ovis pulmonis) is 
considered the smaller of the two. Until the disease is 
well advanced its presence may not be detected except by 
post mortem. When present, little tubercles may be 
found in the lungs, ^^'hen these are cut open, there is 
a worm inside. The mating takes place in the bronchi 
and soon the worms are produced to further aggravate 
the trouble. The hair lung worm (Strongylus filaria) 
when present may be found by slitting open the bronchial 
tubes. 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 399 

The symptoms in the early stages of the disease may 
be mistaken for those caused by some other ailments. 
Sheep that are seriously affected with either disease have 
pale mucous membranes, a coat harsh and dry, more or 
less difficulty in breathing, and in many instances a deep 
cough. Both ailments are of rather slow development, 
especially in the case of the hair lung worm; hence the 
losses that occur are in old rather than in young sheep. 
Such ailments as bronchitis and pneumonia are much 
more rapid in their action. The losses occur to a greater 
extent from lack of thrift than from deaths in the flock. 

The life history of the hair and thread lung worms 
respectively is not far different. The young of both es- 
cape from the lungs of the sheep oftentimes while in the 
act of coughing. They are scattered over the yards and 
pastures where sheep take their food and drink, and prob- 
ably through the medium of these they reach the lungs of 
the sheep. When the former reaches the extreme end of 
the bronchial tube they become encysted. In the cyst 
they grow to adult size. Escaping from the cyst, they 
make their way into the small air tubes, mate and repro- 
duce. The eggs are laid in the surrounding cavities. The 
young worms hatched from these make their way into 
the neighboring air chambers, and some of them are 
caught up at a later period. These may aid in the spread- 
ing of the disease. The thread lung worm deposits eggs 
in the surrounding mucus within the bronchial tubes. 
Each Ggg contains within it a young worm. When these 
are hatched many of them are expelled through coughing, 
and these in turn may aid in spreading the disease. The 
symptoms are more pronounced than in the case of the 
hair worms. The young parasites have great vitality. 
They can live for months in stagnant water. 

The preventive measures that may be adopted may 
not always be effective in all instances in staying the 
progress of the disease. The expulsion of the parasites 
through coughing makes it difficult to keep hitherto un- 



4C0 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

affected animals free from attack. The presence of the 
worms in the lambs indicates that they are continually 
passing through indirectly from sheep to sheep. Of 
course, it will help to prevent invasion if the lambs are 
kept aw^ay from pastures in v^hich the old sheep graze and 
from drinking in pools of water. 

For the hair lung worm no very effective treatment has 
been discovered. For the thread lung worm tracheal in- 
jections have been found partially effective, but they 
should be administered only by a skilled veterinarian. 
Fumigation may render some aid, but may not be prac- 
ticable in all instances, from want of a suitable place in 
which to fumigate. At the best it cannot be said that it 
is completely effective. It should be done in a building 
nearly airtight. Sulphur burned slov^ly is the best sub- 
stance for such fumigating. The treatment should be 
given daily for a week, when it is discontinued for two 
weeks, and repeated again daily for several days. The 
attendants must guard against suffocation, which they 
may readily do by watching the movements of the sheep 
through a window. The worms are thus benumbed and 
in the coughing that follows many will be ejected. 

Nodular disease (Oesophagostoma columbiannm), fre- 
quently called nodule disease, is characterized by tumors 
present in the intestines. It is caused by a nematode or 
round worm, which is usually found in considerable num- 
bers in the large intestine. It may also be found in the 
tumors and these may extend the entire length of the 
intestine. It is now to be reckoned with in many flocks, 
but to a greater extent probably east from the Mississippi 
River, than west from the same. It is the source of very 
considerable loss. The harm resulting is in proportion 
to the number of the parasites. 

The indications of the presence of nodular disease are 
not greatly different from those that indicate the pres- 
ence of stomach worms (see page 391). These include 
bloodless lips, dry wool, emaciation, and, in the more 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 4OI 

severe cases, diarrhoea. Nevertheless, sheep may in some 
instances be infected in a considerable degree and still re- 
tain a fair degree of thrift, but usually the indications of 
debility are present, and increasingly so as time advances. 
Unlike the stomach worm affection, it does more harm to 
mature sheep than to lambs. This may be partly the out- 
come of the gradual rate of the infection and the slow 
rate of development within the tumors. The parasites 
affect the digestion adversely. 

The life history of the parasite is only known during 
the period of its development in the intestinal canal. 
When the eggs escape, as doubtless they do, in the ex- 
crement, they in some way reach the sheep, probably 
in the food or water. In the intestines they become sur- 
rounded by a cyst and later by the products of the inflam- 
mation which they produce in the surrounding tissues. 
When about 1-16 of an inch long they break from the 
tumors and begin life in the intestine, where they grow 
to maturity. 

The preventive measures are about the same as for 
stomach worms (see page 393). Frequent changing of 
the pastures, the avoidance of all grazing grounds and the 
breaking up of the same are greatly important. Nodular 
disease is most in evidence in the early spring season. 
There is no sure remedy for the disease. 

While preventive measures should receive every at- 
tention when combating internal parasites, and while 
treatment should be most faithfully and persistently ad- 
ministered where it is probable that it will do some good, 
it is true, nevertheless, that in many instances it would be 
better in every way to sell the entire flock and begin 
again with other sheep after an interval of several 
months. This will apply in many instances to the inva- 
sion of flocks by stomach worms, tapeworms, lung worms 
and the worms that cause nodular disease. One season 
should suffice to leave the farm free from sheep, that the 
germs may perish. When restocking the farm every pre 



402 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

caution should be taken to make sure that the sheep 
brought in are healthy. 

Grub ill the head (Oestrus ovis) is sometimes called 
nasal catarrh. The trouble resulting is caused by a worm 
laid by a species of the gadfly within the nostrils of sheep 
which crawls up into the remotest parts of the upper cav- 
ities of the nostril adjacent to the brain, where it grows 
to maturity, and in instances not a few leads to the death 
of the sheep. This result usually follows from the in- 
flammation produced, which extends more or less to ad- 
jacent portions of the brain. The fly which lays the grub 
was probably brought into America with the early im- 
portations of sheep. It is widely distributed. It is more 
troublesome in the mild than in cold latitudes, owing 
doubtless to the longer period congenial to its develop- 
ment. But as far north as the southern Canadian boun- 
dary, in some instances, the losses from its presence are 
quite serious. Because of the slow development of the 
grub, it is much more harmful to old than to young 
sheep. The fly which lays the eggs is of sluggish habits, 
and seldom flies, save when in search of some place to 
deposit its young. It then flies swiftly with a low whir- 
ring sound. It is considerably larger than a house fly and 
it is claimed that it has no mouth, its only instinct appar- 
ently being to reproduce its kind. The young are de- 
posited, not as an egg, but as a maggot within the rim 
of the nostrils of the sheep. The usual time of the ap- 
pearance of the fly is probably June and July in the northern 
states, but in the southern states it is doubtless present much 
longer, as there the grubs may be found in the nasal cavi- 
ties during all the year and in various stages of growth. 
The sheep are much agitated when the fly makes its at- 
tacks. In some instances as soon as a fly touches the nose 
of a sheep it shakes its head and strikes the ground vio- 
lently with the forefeet. Holding the nose close to the 
ground, the sheep run away. In other instances they 
crowd together during the heat of the day with the nose 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 403 

ill proximity to the ground. It is only in the spring time 
when the larva are well developed that they cause trouble. 
A discharge is first noticed, which when it first appears is 
clear and serous, but later it is thick and mucous. More 
or less sneezing is present, and this is accompanied by a 
discharge of mucus and in some instances of the larvae. 
As the trouble advances they frequently turn the head 
backward and shake it and they rub the nose against the 
ground. Still later they lift their feet high when walking 
and go with lowered head accompanied occasionally by 
staggering. In some instances the breathing is affected, 
owing to obstructions which arise in the air passages by 
the presence of the worms, or of the resulting inflamma- 
tion in the mucous membrane. Appetite fails, a frothy 
substance runs from the nose, they grit their teeth, con- 
vulsions follow and death comes usually within a few 
days of the appearance of the symptoms. In many in- 
stances the animals may recover, especially in the absence 
of the later symptoms referred to. 

The life history is in outline as follows : As soon as 
the young larva are deposited they begin to crawl up- 
ward into the nostril. When mature the grubs are ^ of 
an inch long and about 1-3 of an inch wide, and are of a 
dark color. When mature the larva escapes from the 
nostril, falls to the ground, bores a hole an inch or two in 
the same, and in 20 to 60 days emerges as a fly. The 
period of the development of the larva is about 10 months. 
In young lambs only young larva are found. The great- 
est infection is found in sheep two years and over. In 
ewes the sinuses may hold even more than four or five 
of the larva, without crowding, and males can hold a 
number considerably larger. 

Preventive measures, though they involve much 
labor, are all important. Because of the labor which they 
involve, they can be best resorted to in the case of small 
flocks such as are kept on the ordinary farm. One of 
these is the smearing of the nostrils of the sheep with 



404 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

some offensive substance which will keep the flies away. 
The following- is one of the best of these: Take equal 
parts of tar and grease, tar and fish oil, or tar and whale 
oil soap. Mix them and apply with a brush. This appli- 
cation must be repeated every few days, as it soon loses 
its potency. A second method secures some strong 
scented dip and applies the same as a spray on the sheep 
as they are bunched. Yet another preventive, and prob- 
ably the best that can be resorted to, is to provide the 
sheep with a cool, well-ventilated and darkened resting 
place in which they may remain during the heat of the 
day in the warm season. Then it is that the fly does its 
mischievous work. 

Treatment for grub in the head is practically out of 
the question. In some rare instances a skilled veterinarian 
may destroy the grubs by trephining, but in more in- 
stances failure will result. The cost involved in the case 
of common sheep is too great to justify resorting to this 
kind of treatment. 

Ailments from digestive sources — The ailments from 
digestive sources are many. In this volume it would be 
impossible to discuss all of these. Such a discussion may 
properly belong to a work on the diseases of sheep. The 
following only will be discussed: (i) Bloat and its treat- 
ment; (2) overtaxed digestion and its treatment; (3) 
diarrhea and the treatment; (4) colic and the treatment; 
and (5) stretches and the treatment. 

Bloat, sometimes and probably more frequently called 
"hoven," may result from any abrupt change to a palata- 
ble diet, especially one that contains much moisture. In 
this country it is usually caused by eating too freely of 
such rations as rape, clover and alfalfa, especially when 
these are quite succulent. The danger is increased when 
these foods are wet with rain or dew, or are in a more 
or less frozen condition. Feeding upon the tops of imma- 
ture mangels may also produce bloat. Fermentation of 
the food in the rumen is the immediate cause of this con- 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 405 

dition. The distension resulting may so press upon the 
lungs that the animal unless speedily relieved may die 
from suffocation. 

This trouble may be prevented by not allowing the 
animals to feed upon such foods when the stomach is 
empty. When admitting them to these, it is especially 
important that they have been fed some palatable food, 
and preferably a dry food, before admitting them to such 
pastures. When they have become accustomed to these 
the danger is much less, but it is not entirely obviated. 
It is always materially lessened by feeding the sheep a 
small grain ration in the early morning. This is espe- 
cially important after the season of early frosts has 
arrived. 

The treatment that most speedily and most sureh' 
brings relief results from the use of the trocar and can- 
ula. The former is used in puncturing the paunch and the 
latter remaining in the puncture is used in furnishing a 
channel for the escape of the gas. Puncture with a knife 
is hazardous. It may bring temporary relief, but in the 
puncture thus made some of the contents of the stomach 
may escape and lead to results that are disastrous. A 
mild purgative is usually in order after the bloating has 
been relieved. In the absence of the trocar and canula, 
relief has been obtained in some instances by inserting a 
large rope of suitable size in the mouth in the form of a 
bit. It is held in place by strings tied to each end and 
again at the summit of the head. This treatment aids in 
the escape of the gas. 

Indigestion may result from a great variety of causes. 
Among these are the following: Feeding food over- 
succulent or overdry, in an improper copdition or ex- 
cessive in quantity. 

The symptoms will vary with the cause. Food over- 
succulent is much liable to lead to diarrhea ; when lacking 
in succulence, it may lead to impaction. If fed in an im- 
proper condition, as when moldy, it may lead to serious 



406 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

derangement of the whole digestive system and also to 
other ailments. When fed excessive in quantity, as in the 
form of strong grains fed to animals that are being fat- 
tened, it leads to digestive derangement that is accompa- 
nied by loss of appetite that may be partial or total, pro- 
portionate to the degree of the derangement. 

The preventive measures in all those instances are 
very clear. Along v^^ith over-succulent food, some less 
succulent should be given. To illustrate : When sheep 
are turned in on to a succulent crop of rape, clover or 
alfalfa, they should also have access to a grass pasture 
in w^hich the grass has lost much of its succulence, or in 
its room to a good quality of cured alfalfa or clover hay. 
The sheep will partake of the dry food under such con- 
ditions. When the fodder is woody and overdry, as it is 
in some instances in winter, the aim should be to feed 
some more laxative food along with it, as field roots, 
oilcake or silage. Overfeeding strong grain foods may 
be guarded against by leading up to full feeding grad- 
ually and on grains less strong, and by watching the 
appetite of the sheep. As soon as any symptoms of wan- 
ing appetite are noticed the amount of grain that is being 
fed should be lessened. Should the appetite be absent in 
a marked degree, it may be wise to withhold the grain 
food entirely for a time. From what has been said it will 
be apparent that the place for treatment for indigestion 
is not a large one. Mild purgatives may be helpful in 
some instances in removing from the stomach and intes- 
tines substances that may be irritating in their nature. For 
such use the following purgatives will be found quite 
suitable, viz., four ounces of epsom salts given in water 
or three to four ounces of castor oil. 

Diarrhea and treatment — Diarrhea may be simple or 
parasitic. It is simple when it results from some change 
in the diet that disturbs the normal digestive processes. 
It is the efifort of nature to remove irritant matters in the 
stomach and alimentary canal, when these are present. It 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 407 

is parasitic when it results from the presence of such para- 
sites as stomach worms and tapeworms in the digestive 
tract. In such instances the cure is found first or mainly 
in the removal of the cause. The treatment for stomach 
worms is discussed on page 394, and for tapeworms on 
page 397. In the present instance, therefore, the discus- 
sion is narrowed down to the methods that will best tend 
to combat the evils resulting from the simple form of 
diarrhea. As will be shown, the treatment for simple 
diarrhea is much less complex than for parasitic diar- 
rhea. The symptoms of simple diarrhea are frequent ex- 
pulsion of the feces, and more or less watery in character. 
They are free from blood and slime, and are not usually 
of seriously offensive odor. The appetite is sharper in 
most instances than in the absence of the trouble. The 
symptoms are not to be confounded with those which in- 
dicate the presence of dysentery. In the latter, to which 
diarrhea unchecked may lead, fever is present, the debil- 
ity is rapid and extreme and the bowels rumble. The 
feces are thin but adhesive, are laden with mucus and are 
passed with pain. Such attacks are usually more or less 
fatal, and when the disease becomes thus serious it is best 
dealt with by a competent veterinarian. The causes of 
diarrhea may be various. The most common cause is the 
partaking too freely of over-succulent food, as when sheep 
are turned out to graze upon succulent young grasses in 
the spring or into a field of succulent food such as rape. 
Frozen rape or frozen clover are aggravating causes. The 
trouble, however, may also arise from feeding indigestible 
food, from certain changes of diet suddenly made and 
from exposure when in an emaciated condition. 

Diarrhea may in nearly all instances be prevented by 
careful and thoughtful management. When changes of 
diet are made, they should be gradual rather than sudden. 
When the animals are turned on to a very succulent diet, 
the change being made from one that is dry, the aim 
should be to have them partake of some dry food in the 



408 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

early part of the day for several days before they par- 
take solely of the succulent food. When the trouble 
comes from feeding the sheep indigestible foods or those 
not easily digested, it is very evident that the aim should 
be to change the diet, for no good can result from feed- 
ing foods that irritate the digestive organs. When the 
trouble is the outcome of exposure, it might have been 
prevented by shielding the sheep from exposure, and such 
shielding is usually within the power of the prudent 
flockmaster. When the trouble results from partaking of 
food unduly succulent, the feeding of dry fodder or grain 
and giving the sheep access to a plentiful supply of salt 
will be found helpful, if not, indeed, entirely efficacious. 
Since the presence of simple diarrhea in its early stages 
of development is simply an effort of nature to get rid of 
irritant substances, it is well not to be too hasty in check- 
ing it. But when prolonged, the following remedy may 
be helpful, viz., three to five ounces of castor oil for a 
mature sheep. Follow in due time with tincture of opium 
one dram, powdered ginger one dram, and prepared 
chalk 12 drams. Rations dry in character should also 
be fed, and with due caution. 

Colic and treatment — Colic in sheep arises from 
digestive disturbances resulting from the feeding of un- 
suitable foods. Though closely allied to the disease 
known as stretches, it differs from the latter in some of 
the essential symptoms. The leading indications of colic 
include moaning, grinding the teeth, frequent getting up 
and lying down and striking the belly with the hind feet. 
Lambs show these symptoms much more frequently than 
adults as the result of errors in dieting, whereas in 
stretches the animal frequently lays down and stretches 
out at full length. 

Colic is caused from digestive disturbance, the out- 
come of feeding unsuitable food. These include such ra- 
tions as frozen rape and clover. Unless soon relieved the 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 409 

affected parts may become inflamed and the animal may 
die. 

The preventive measures are all important. They in- 
clude the feeding of dry and succulent foods in due bal- 
ance, and avoiding the feeding of the same when injured 
by frost. When it occurs in lambs, the milk of a cow or 
of a foster mother, which is frequently the aggravating 
cause, may be improved by adding limewater to make it 
conform more nearly to the constituents natural to the 
young lamb. 

For treatment such mild remedies as ginger, pepper- 
mint and warm gruel may suffice. In other instances a 
cathartic may be necessary. A popular remedy consists 
of one dram of laudanum and one of powdered ginger 
for a mature sheep, administered in flaxseed tea. 

Stretches and treatment — When sheep are main- 
tained for a long period on heavy and dry rations the 
trouble popularly known as "stretches" is very liable to 
occur, more especially when constipation has been pres- 
ent for a considerable period. The indications of 
stretches include the sudden lying down of the sheep 
and stretching out at full length. It is rarely met 
with in a flock in which suitable food has been 
provided. Clearly, it is the outcome of unsuitable 
dieting, resulting in impaction. It is rarely met with in 
a flock to which roots are freely fed. The cause being 
known, the preventive measures are easy. They include 
the feeding of such foods as will ward off constipation. 
These include field roots, oilcake and some such food as 
corn ensilage, although the latter is not equal to field 
roots in warding off the disease. 

For treatment, melted lard has been recommended. 
The dose for an adult sheep is about one-quarter of a 
pound. When administering the lard a drenching bottle 
or a tablespoon may be used. For lambs the following 
has been found very helpful : Four ounces of epsom salts, 
two tablespoonfuls of molasses and a heaping teaspoonful 



4IO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

of ground ginger. The ginger should be dissolved in half 
a pint of water. 

Ailments affecting the organs of respiration — In the 
discussion that follows the subjects discussed will in- 
clude: (i) Catarrh and the treatment; (2) pneumonia and 
the treatment; and (3) pleurisy and the treatment. These 
are, of course, only some of the more common ailments of 
this class. 

Catarrh is of three forms. The most common form 
is that known as nasal catarrh. A second form has been 
designated epizootic catarrh, and a third form as parasitic 
catarrh. The second form is closely allied to the first. 
The third form is caused by the presence of such para- 
sites as the larvae of Oestrus ovis, grub in the head. 

Nasal catarrh is accompanied by frequent sneezing, 
discharge from the nose, labored breathing and loss of 
appetite. The indications of fever may not be markedly 
present. The ailment, in common phrase, has been called 
snufBes. When neglected in winter, it sometimes afifects 
simultaneously the greater part of the flock, and it may 
remain until warm weather. The impression that it is 
contagious is probably not quite correct. In rare instances 
it may prove fatal by the inflammation extending down 
the air passages, but these are not of frequent occurrence. 

Nasal catarrh is the outcome of exposure, as, for in- 
stance, to cold autumn rains or to drafts where the sheep 
are taking rest, especially in the night season. It may 
also arise from some other causes. 

The preventive measures, of course, are such as will 
ward oflf the causes that produce the disease. Special 
pains should be taken to guard against autumn storms, 
and especially cold rain storms, which in many instances 
give rise to this trouble, and also to guard against the 
possibility of harmful drafts when providing places of 
shelter. 

The best treatment is to build up the system through 
the medium of suitable and specially nourishing food. 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 4II 

Specific treatment can be given that will compare with 
liberal feeding in warding off and removing the ill effects 
of the disease. 

Bronchitis may be simple or parasitical. It is simple 
when it results from undue exposure, as to inclement 
weather or to drafts such as produce effects more deep 
seated than catarrhal troubles. It is parasitical when it is 
the outcome of the presence of some parasites in the bron- 
chial tubes, as for instance the thread lung worm, which 
has already been discussed (see page 399). 

The indications of bronchitis in lambs are a moist 
and wheezing cough, more or less fever and increased 
rapidity of breathing. The coughing is in most instances 
severe and prolonged. 

Treatment in the ordinary sense of the term will be 
of comparatively little avail. Preventive measures are 
vastly more efficacious. These are such as pertain to the 
protection of sheep from storms, especially rainstorms, 
and from drafts such as produce catarrh. This, how- 
ever, does not exclude the use of laxatives and of certain 
stimulant tonics. But the most efficacious measures that 
can be adopted are such as relate to good nursing, which 
means providing good sanitary conditions and a nourish- 
ing diet. 

Simple pneumonia is more deeply seated than catarrh 
or bronchitis. It is a disease of the lungs in which the 
inflammation works rapidly, if left unchecked. Because 
of the rapidity with which the disease does its work, it 
has been termed, in common phrase, "rot of the lights." 

The indications of pneumonia are various. It com- 
mences with frequent and troublesome coughing. There 
is also present an unwillingness to move, heaving of the 
flank and signs of labored breathing. As the disease in- 
creases the symptoms become intensified. Finally, the 
animals stagger and succumb unless relief is furnished, 
which occurs but seldom, as the disease is usually quite 
fatal. 



412 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

This trouble is the outcome of exposure. Very fre- 
quently it assumes the form of acute congestion. It may 
come from chills after unduly rapid driving, or from want 
of sufficient protection after washing or early shearing. 
In America it would seem correct to say that the most 
common cause is exposure to cold rains in the autumn, 
winter or spring, and especially autumn rains, which may 
fall unexpectedly, and may be quickly followed by 
weather severely cold. Sheep with long and open fleeces, 
and especially those with fleeces that part, as it were, 
along the line of the back are the most liable to suffer 
from such visitation. Preventive measures with this dis- 
ease, as well as nasal catarrh and bronchitis, are all im- 
portant. The shepherd who is duly alert does not need 
to pay much attention to the treatment of these diseases, 
for he will seldom have them in his flock. 

The preventive measures for pneumonia are about 
the same as for catarrh and bronchitis (see page 410). 
The treatment is also about the same ; but in the case of 
pneumonia treatment is usually of but little avail, owing 
to the rapidity with which the disease puts in its deadly 
work. 

Pleurisy, which affects the lining that incloses the 
lungs rather than the lungs themselves, sometimes oc- 
curs, but not so frequently as pneumonia. In some in- 
stances the two diseases are operative at the same time. 
The symptoms of pleurisy are not greatly different, to the 
general observer, from those that pertain to pneumonia, 
but the breathing is less labored. The causes are meas- 
urably virtually the same and also the preventive meas- 
ures and treatment. 

Ailments arising from reproduction — These include : 
(i) Abortion and the treatment; (2) retention of the 
afterbirth and treatment ; and (3) inversion of the womb 
and treatment. These troubles may occur even in flocks 
that are well managed. 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 413 

Abortion in ewes is much less frequent than in cows. 
It seldom becomes epizootic, but it is claimed that in 
some instances it does assume a highly contagious form. 

When a pregnant ewe isolates herself from the flock, 
and when such isolation is accompanied by occasional or 
frequent bleating, the evidence is present that she is 
likely to abort or that she is carrying a dead lamb. 

The causes that lead to abortion are various. It may 
result from : (i) Improper feeding, as the feeding of fodders 
or grains that contain molds ; from feeding frosted roots 
or roots in excess ; or from feeding mangels not fully 
ripened. (2) From rough treatment, as crowding the 
ewes through narrow doorways, or turning them on their 
buttocks to dress their feet. (3) From fright, as chasing 
by dogs, or from overdriving. (4) From hoven, or as the 
outcome of other ailments. (5) From infection. 

The preventive measures are those which will ward 
ofif the various causes mentioned. As a safeguard against 
contagious abortion the rule is a good one which buries 
the ejected foetus and the contaminated litter. 

The medicinal treatment consists in injecting some 
antiseptic, as a 1.5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, into 
the genital organ and strengthening the animals by ad- 
ministering to them mild tonics. 

Retention of the afterbirth is not infrequent with 
ewes where complications have been present during par- 
turition. If not removed within a reasonable time, it may 
only come away by slow degrees as the mass decays. The 
odor thus engendered is very ofifensive. The affected ani- 
mal will not thrive as it should, and fatal complications 
may follow as the outcome of blood poisoning. The 
trouble will not usually occur with strong and vigorous 
animals, but with those that are feeble from lack of food, 
or other causes the instances are not infrequent. 

Some shepherds attach a weight to the protruding 
mass which removes it by degrees. It may be removed 
by working the hand, if quite small, into the vagina, and 



414 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

gradually working the attachments loose. An antiseptic, 
as 15 per cent carbolic acid, may then be syringed into 
the womb. 

Inversion of the womb, sometimes spoken of as los- 
ing the lamb bed, sometimes occurs. When it does it 
ought to be replaced at the earliest moment possible, or 
the effect upon the ewe will soon prove disastrous. 

The trouble may result : (i) From severe labor pains ; 
(2) from excessive spasm of the uterus; or (3) from vio- 
lence in the artificial extraction of the lamb. 

Before replacing the expelled part it should be 
cleansed from all foreign matters and fetal membranes. 
Replacement will be aided by laying the sheep on its 
back and stretching the hind parts. The organ may be 
held in place by the aid of a truss for a time. This is held 
in place by a strap that goes around the buttock and fas- 
tens at either end to a suitable surcingle put around the 
body just behind the forelegs. A small strap which goes 
over the top of the hips is also attached to these side 
straps. A ewe that has been thus affected should not be 
retained for future breeding. 

Ailments that affect the limbs — While these are not 
numerous, some of them give very much trouble, as. for 
instance, foot rot. The only troubles that affect the limbs 
that can be discussed in this work are: (i) Common foot 
rot ; (2) contagious foot rot ; and (3) broken limbs. 

Common foot rot sometimes called simple foot rot, is 
more frequent and more virulent in areas where the pas- 
ture lands are moist to wet and where the weather also is 
normally moist. In western Europe it is much more prev- 
alent than in most parts of the United States. It begins 
by lameness, generally in one of the forefeet. At the first 
the skin is slightly reddened and then covered with gran- 
ulated matter or small warty growths. It usually pro- 
ceeds downward on the inner side of one claw. The 
whole foot is hot and tender and the coronet swollen. 
The horn of the hoof becomes soft, with evidence of de- 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 415 

cay, followed by more or less of piecemeal detachment 
and accompanied by a very offensive smell. The crumb- 
ling may eventually leave the lower part of the foot com- 
pletely exposed, but in the less acute cases the hoof, 
though not shed, becomes much enlarged and ridgy. 
When the sensitive parts are exposed, they sprout in the 
form of fungous masses. Ulcers follow, more or less, and 
maggots may increase the disintegration. The trouble 
unchecked will probably extend to other feet, but seldom 
to all of them at once. In time the affected animals come 
to feed on their knees when the forefeet are affected and 
draw themselves on their bellies when the hind feet are 
affected. 

The causes that lead to foot rot include the follow- 
ing: (i) Overmoisture in pastures on soil so soft as to 
encourage too much the growth of spongy hoofs ; (2) 
animals standing too much in their own excrement when 
soft and wet; (3) overmuch grit on sandy chalk or clay 
soils; (4) excessive paring of the hoof may encourage 
the trouble; (5) punctures with stones, thorns or nails 
and bruises may lead to it. 

Preventive measures consist in what may be termed 
good sanitation and the intelligent and watchful care of 
the flock. This includes judicious feeding, careful and 
timely trimming of the feet and prompt remedial meas- 
ures when the disease appears, with a change of quarters 
to prevent its further spread. 

The treatment is twofold. It consists, first, in re- 
moving all diseased matter by paring and washing, and 
second applying some suitable form of dressing. Rey- 
nolds gives the following: 

"Clean thoroughly between the toes ; pare away all 
diseased bone and remove the loosened pieces. The hoof, 
if grown out of shape, must be trimmed to normal pro- 
portion. Excessive granulations must be cut away or 
removed by actual cautery, and be repressed by astring- 
ent measures or pressure bandages. Pledgets of tow may 



4l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SilEEr 

be dipped in tar and applied over the granulations, so as 
to bring pressure at the right point. The patients should 
be kept upon clean dry footing and serious cases should 
be taken up and kept in the yard or in dry stables. For 
astringent dressing tincture of iron is suitable, varying 
from full strength to i to 4 dissolved in water. Four per 
cent carbolized tar makes a nice application for cleansing 
and disinfecting and keeps out dirt. The medical treat- 
ment, particularly the astringent, should be very carefully 
applied, especially into the crevices and deeper recesses. 
It is frequently advisable to treat the whole fiock in a 
general way ; in that case the flock may be driven through 
a large pan containing solution of copper sulphate about 
4 inches deep. The animals should be forced to remain in 
the pan for several minutes, so as to insure good treat- 
ment. The solution should be made up dissolved in water 
in the proportion of one to two pounds per gallon of 
water. 

Contagious foot rot is not to be confounded with com- 
mon or simple foot rot. It begins with a redness of skin 
about the coronet. Then follows, in the order named, 
vesiculation, scab and desiccation. The hoofs then tend 
to separate from the sensitive parts which they cover. It 
usually breaks out on all the feet at once and fever runs 
high. 

The disease comes through contact. It may come 
through pastures, corrals, transporting ships or cars, and 
through the medium of fairs. It runs a course of sev- 
eral weeks. Preventive measures are very important. 
They include: (i) Keeping the sheep and their feet in 
good condition; (2) quarantining diseased animals; and 
(3) disinfecting affected quarters. The treatment is in 
many respects similar to that given for common foot 
rot (see page 415). Removing the diseased parts by par- 
ing is first in order. Then follows a caustive dressing, 
preferably applied by pouring or dropping, as a brush or 
a feather soon becomes tainted with the virus. Tincture 



THE MORE COxMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 417 

of iron will furnish these dressings. Later a coating of 
tar will give protection. Large numbers may be treated 
by driving them through a trough containing a solution 
of carbolic acid, one part to 20 to 30 parts of soap and 
water according to the severity of the disease. 

Broken limbs must be dealt with according to the 
nature of the break. In' the absence of a skilled veterina- 
rian the aim should be to put the broken limb in place : 
then put wet cardboard around, and hold this in place by 
wrapping with a strong bandage. Splints may sometimes 
answer the purpose better than cardboard. 

Ailments peculiar to lambs — The ailments peculiar 
to lambs include: (i) Indigestion; (2) white scours; (3) 
retention of excrement; (4) wool balls in the stomach; 
and (5) navel disease. These ills and the treatment for 
each will now be discussed in due order. 

Indigestion in lambs may result from the food fur- 
nished to the dams through the influence which it exerts 
on the digestion of the lamb. It may take the form of 
constipation, as when the supply of the milk is meager 
and furnished from foods low in nutrition and lacking in 
succulence ; or it may take the form of diarrhea from the 
feeding of foods excessive in quantity and richness. 
When a lamb previously thrifty shows indications of 
dumpishness, the presence of constipation is to be sus- 
pected. The remedy is mild doses of castor oil, or what 
is preferable, an injection of soapy water. A moderate 
ration of field roots or of oilcake fed to the dam would 
])robably prevent such a condition, at least in very many 
instances. 

Scours in young lambs are the outcome of milk unsuit- 
able or excessive or of germ infection. The result is pro- 
fuse white-colored evacuations. It seldom takes the epi- 
demic form, but many instances may occur simultane- 
ously and from the same cause ; that is from the excessive 
quantity of the rich milk furnished. When indications of 
scours appear, the diet of the dams should be reduced and 



4l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

a portion of the milk taken from the dams of the lambs 
that are thus affected, in order that the latter may not be 
able to take food to excess. A form of scours may occur 
at a later period in which the evacuations have a greenish 
tint. It is more fatal than the former. It is produced by 
some unsuitable elements in the diet. 

Retention of excrement is one outcome of indigestion 
in young lambs. It results from some peculiarities in the 
milk which are the outcome of certain foods fed to the 
dams. The excrement may accumulate to such an extent 
about and underneath the tail head as to close the pass- 
ages so that evacuation ceases. The remedy is to remove 
the adherent matter mechanically. When thus removed 
the digestion usually regulates itself within the next few 
days. 

Wool balls are accumulations of wool in the stomach. 
The wool is taken into the stomach in some instances 
while the lambs are taking food from the dams, and in 
other instances as the result of biting because of the pres- 
ence of ticks. It may result, as it does in the case of old 
sheep, as the outcome of a depraved appetite resulting 
from errors of diet. The trouble may be prevented when 
it arises from the first cause by clipping away all loose 
locks of wool that may adhere to the udder before the 
lambs begin to nurse. When thus affected, the lambs are 
dull and stupid and refuse their food. A suitable purga- 
tive may relieve the trouble. 

Navel disease, more frequently spoken of as navel 
ill, is an affection which produces swelling and soreness 
in the umbilical cord of lambs soon after birth. It is the 
outcome of contact with filth in the sheds. An applica- 
tion of tincture of iodine promptly applied will usually 
prove effective in destroying the germs. 

Ailments miscellaneous in character — The discussion 
of these will include: (i) Goiter; (2) ophthalmia; (3) 
tumors; (4) urinary troubles; and (5) garget. The treat- 
ment will be included. 



THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 419 

Goiter is an affection of the thyroid glands which 
causes them to swell so as to form lumplike substances 
in the throat. It affects both lambs and older sheep, but 
more especially the latter, and it is the most harmful 
to them when they are newly born. The lumps are in 
some instances small and hard; in others they are large 
and soft. In many instances the newly born lambs thus 
affected will soon die ; at other times the trouble leaves 
them. The cause of this trouble, which frequently leads 
to serious loss, is not well understood. It occurs in sheep 
of varying degrees of thrift, but to a greater extent prob- 
ably in those more or less pampered than when kept in 
the ordinary way. It would seem probable from the be- 
havior of sheep grazed on soil which contains much lime, 
and which at the same time drink water considerably im- 
pregnated with lime and magnesia, that these conditions 
favor the increase of goiter. However it may originate 
primarily, it would seem to be, in a sense, constitutional 
and therefore transmissible. Such being the case, goi- 
tered dams, or dams which have produced goitered lambs, 
should not be retained for breeding. Applications of 
tincture of iodine once a day may give some relief; also 
iodide of potassium given in doses of say 5 grains for a 
lamb at certain intervals. 

Ophthalmia, better known as Conjunctivitis, is an 
affection of the eyes of sheep which, unchecked, may lead 
to blindness. An inflamed condition is always present. 
Simple ophthalmia is a frequent complication of ordinary 
nasal catarrh. Other exciting causes include exposure 
to cold winds and drafts. It is not infectious, though 
many cases may occur in a flock simultaneously, having 
originated from the same cause. A zinc lotion, prepared 
by a druggist as for treating sore eyes in an individual, 
dropped into the eye once or more frequently, should 
effect a cure. 

Tumors may affect various organs of sheep. Very 
commonly they occur at or within the anus. Their pres- 



420 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ence is indicated by blood in the feces and also by disin- 
clination to move the hind legs. Laxative diets are con- 
sidered helpful. When they occur on the neck they 
should be lanced when ripe and washed out with a solu- 
tion of carbolic acid. Animals thus affected should sel- 
dom be retained. 

Urinary troubles are various and may aflfect both 
males and females in certain instances. One of the most 
common forms, however, affects males only, as when 
mangels are freely fed to them. The immediate cause is 
the forming of crystals at the mouth of the bladder. The 
indications of the trouble are retarded or accelerated 
breathing, swollen sheath, loss of appetite, retention of 
urine, and the evidence of much pain. Treatment in such 
instances is of but little avail, but prevention is easy; that 
is, by not feeding mangels. 

Garget or mammitis is quite common in fiocks that are 
not carefully watched and cared for at the lambing sea- 
son, and also at the time of weaning. It is sometimes 
called caked udder, since the inflammation present results 
in a hardening of the parts affected. It may result from 
various causes, including: (i) Inattention at time of 
weaning, or when one twin lamb has been removed dur- 
ing the nursing period ; (2) exposure to wet and cold, 
as when the sheep are left in the pastures ; (3) lying on 
moist filth in the sleeping places; (4) bruises from the 
lambs sucking; and (5) through germ infection. 

From what has been said about the causes that lead 
to this trouble, the preventive measures will be apparent. 
The treatment should begin with bathing the udder with 
warm water. This may be followed by applying an un- 
guent after the inflamed part has been rubbed dry. The 
unguent may be composed of turpentine and lard, about 
the consistency of cream. It may be employed with ad- 
vantage as frequently as three times daily. Ewes that 
have been troubled thus should not be retained for breed- 
ing. 



CHAPTER XX 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCAB 

This chapter discusses the following phases in regard 
to dipping: (i) The objects sought from dipping; (2) 
The two classes of sheep dips ; (3) The basic element in 
sheep dips; (4) The dipping plant; (5) The reason for 
dipping; (6) Facts that bear upon the work of dipping; 
(7) Care of the animals subsequently to dipping; (8) Re- 
moving parasites by other methods; and (9) How far 
dipping is a necessity. 

The objects sought from dipping — These are three : 
(i) The removal of external parasites; (2) the improving 
of the condition of the skin ; and (3) increasing growth in 
the wool. The first of these objects is the most important 
by far. 

Prominent among the external parasites which dip- 
ping aims to remove are sheep ticks and the mites that 
produce sheep scab. The rate of increase in both is very 
rapid. Gerlach has estimated that the possible increase 
of the mites in sheep scab in 90 days is 1,000,000 females 
and 500,000 males. Other parasites may also be destroyed 
by dipping, as sheep lice and maggots. 

The dipping of sheep- is of comparatively recent 
origin. The sheep industry in America, for instance, 
flourished for at least 75 years prior to the introduction 
of dipping, and in Europe it flourished for centuries before 
this method of fighting parasites had been discovered. 
The shepherds of the Old World had fought the battle 
successfully against parasites in sheep for centuries be- 
fore the introduction of dipping. They did so through 
the practices of smearing and pouring. But the efficacy 
of these practices for the removal of parasites compared 
with dipping are so far behind the latter as, in a sense, 



422 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

to remove the grounds of comparison, and the same may 
be said also in regard to the greater relative cheapness of 
dipping. Where sheep are produced in a large way, as 
on the ranges, it would be virtually impossible to keep 
them free from external parasites in the absence of dip- 
ping. 

While dipping sheep will destroy maggots which 
sometimes affect sheep and more especially Merinos, as at 
the base of the horns in males and in filth that may 
accumulate around the anus at certain seasons of the year, 
these may be removed without the necessity for dipping 
the whole flock. This is done by removing the wool from 
the infected parts by shearing and then applying some 
agent that will prove destructive to the maggots, as, for 
instance, spirits of turpentine and sassafras oil. The 
former should not be used on sheep much exposed to rain. 
The latter is made by the commingling of sassafras oil 
one part and alcohol four parts. 

A second object sought from dipping is to cleanse 
the skin with a view to promote healthy action in the ex- 
udations that tend to maintain good health and to pro- 
mote growth in the wool. The cleansing effect of some of 
the dips used, especially those with coal tar products as 
a base, is very marked. The benefits resulting in the 
greater thrift that follows will go far to offset the shrink- 
age in weight and fleece that sometimes follows dipping. 

A third object sought is increased growth of wool. 
Such increase comes mainly from the increased thrift con- 
sequent upon dipping. Increase in thrift comes, first, 
from relief from the irritation caused by the presence of 
parasites, and, second, from the more healthful action of 
the organs pertaining to the skin. Such increase may 
be material. It may in time far more than compensate 
for any loss that may come from a temporary shock given 
to the system, such as may come from dipping under 
weather conditions that may not be congenial. 

The two classes of sheep dips — Sheep dips are essen- 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 423 

tially of two classes with reference to their source, re- 
gardless of the ingredients which they contain. These 
are proprietary and non-proprietary dips. 

The former are made from secret formulas which are 
known only to those who make them. The basic ingre- 
dients that compose them may be known in a general 
way, but the exact methods of compounding and prepar- 
ing them are known only to the proprietors. Their effi- 
cacy is attested by testimonials from those who have 
used them, and by the extent to which they have come 
into general use. Some of those dips have been in use 
for many years, and the popularity which has come to 
them should be regarded as evidence of their efficacy. 

The latter are non-proprietary. The ingredients 
which compose them are known, also the methods of 
compounding and preparing them. They have the sanc- 
tion in many instances of governmental authority, and 
such sanction has been secured for them on the basis of 
necessity. Such necessity has arisen from the enactment 
of laws for the protection of sheep, more especially in 
transit, from the contaminating influences resulting from 
the presence of parasites. In various countries such 
enactments have been found necessary for the mainte- 
nance and prosperity of the sheep industry. Such legis- 
lation made dipping compulsory under certain conditions, 
and made it necessary also to prescribe the ingredients 
that should be used in preparing dips, the amount of each 
to be used, the methods of compounding them and also 
the manner in which they shall be used. 

A somewhat bitter and prolonged controversy has 
arisen between those who have put proprietary dips on 
the market and the Bureau of Animal Industry in the 
United States, with regard to the dips that shall be given 
the authoritative stamp of public use in compulsory dip- 
ping, as, for instance, when breeding stocks were about 
to be conveyed from state to state. The Bureau claimed, 
and apparently with reason, that before giving its sane- 



424 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

tion lo the use of proprietary dips for such use, the in- 
gredients composing them should be disclosed, with the 
formulas for compounding them. The proprietors of 
these dips objected on the ground that to comply with 
the request of the Bureau would be to give away the 
secret which was virtually the foundation on which the 
success of their business rested. The real question at is- 
sue was not the efficacy of those proprietary dips, or 
whether they should be used in a private way, but 
whether authorities representing the government should 
give their sanction to the use of dips in what may be termed 
compulsor}'- dipping without being fully informed as to 
the character of the dips. It would seem in every way 
reasonable that the Bureau should take such a stand. 
Nor does this conclusion in any way reflect upon the 
efficacy of proprietary dips or upon their relative cost. 

The most important of the dips approved by the 
United States Bureau of Animal Industry are: (i) The 
tobacco and sulphur dip ; (2) the lime and sulphur dip ; 
and (3) coal tar dips, when these are used according to 
the approved formulas. The use of arsenical and carbolic 
dips the Bureau does not encourage, even when the for- 
mulas by which they are made are published. 

In nearly all instances, however, the formulas for 
making proprietary dips have not been disclosed. That 
some of these are efficacious is undoubtedly true. That 
the cost is not excessive is also true in some instances. 
But the fact remains that in many instances the purchaser 
takes chances. The only guarantee of the genuineness of 
the solution is the reputation of the individual or the firm 
who have put it on the market. Of this he cannot always 
be able to secure information. The best that he can do 
is to purchase a dip the reputation of which has brought 
it into general use. 

Proprietary dips have one advantage over non-pro- 
prietary dips which, more than anything else, probably 
accounts for their very general use. They are already 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 425 

admixed, so that with but little labor added when pre- 
paring them for use they are ready to do the work claimed 
for them. In nearly all instances considerable labor is in- 
volved in compounding homemade dips and in preparing 
them for use. These proprietary dips are very numerous 
now, and the number is increasing. The publicity given 
to them by the agricultural press, which in some instances 
may be the result of patronage, encourages their use. 

The basic element in dips — All sheep dips have a 
basic element; that is, one or more ingredients which 
gives to them their efficacy and also the designation by 
which they are known. This applies to both proprietary 
and non-proprietary dips. The chief of these have the 
following elements as their basis: (i) Tobacco and sul- 
phur; (2) lime and sulphur; (3) coal tar; (4) carbolic 
acid ; and (5) arsenic. 

The tobacco and sulphur dip stands high in favor, 
not only in the estimation of the bureau of animal in- 
dustry, but also in the estimation of many flockmasters 
who have used it, both in the United States and in the 
British colonies of the southern hemisphere, where it first 
came into common use. The almost complete eradication 
of sheep scab in South Australia and New South Wales 
which at one time threatened the ruin of the sheep in- 
dustry, is due almost entirely to its use. 

The dip is prepared as follows : For every 100 gallons 
of dip required, use 21 pounds of tobacco leaves of good 
quality and 16 pounds of flowers of sulphur. Soak the leaves 
in cold or lukewarm water for 24 hours in a covered vessel. 
Bring the water to near the boiling point for a moment 
and then remove from the fire. If in the evening allow 
the infusion to draw until morning, and in any event for 
not less than an hour. Then strain the mass, using 
pressure to obtain all the nicotine possible. Mix the flow- 
ers of sulphur in water so as to make a thin paste and 
pour the same into the dip, meantime stirring it slowly 
to prevent the sulphur from settling, as it otherwise 



426 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

would. Add water if necessary, that there may be 100 
gallons of the solution. After the nicotine solution has 
been added, do not raise its temperature higher than no 
degrees F., because of the volatile nature of the nicotine 
when thus heated. 

The tobacco and sulphur dip is, all things considered, 
one of the most satisfactory. It is not very costly and in 
some instances the farmer can grow his own tobacco. It 
is very effective, as two of the best destroyers of para- 
sites that infest the wool of sheep, viz.. nicotine and sul- 
phur, are used together. The sulphur remains for a time 
in the wool, and thus far guards against reinfection. It 
does not affect the wool injuriously, save by a slight 
discoloration temporarily. But to its use there are the 
following drawbacks: (i) It spoils rapidly, hence when 
made it must be promptly used ; (2) it occasionally sick- 
ens the sheep and may also thus affect those engaged in 
dipping, especially when non-smokers; (3) the amount of 
nicotine in the tobacco varies, hence unless this is known 
the dip may not be exactly of the desired strength. The 
solution should contain 0.05 of one per cent of nicotine. 
Because of the variations in* the amount of nicotine in 
tobacco, it may be better in many instances to purchase 
a proprietary tobacco dip, which has been approved by 
the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

The lime and sulphur dip is one of the cheapest and 
also one of the most effective dips that have been used 
in treating sheep for scab. A somewhat heated and pro- 
longed controversy with reference to the place that 
should be assigned to it among dips has arisen and pre- 
vailed during recent years. The parties to this contro- 
versy were the bureau of animal industry on the one 
hand and certain agricultural papers on the other, who 
may have had some pecuniary interest in the outcome of 
the discussion. 

The objections made to the use of this dip include 
the following: (i) That it injures the staple of the wool; 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 427 

(2) that its continued use tends to lessen wool produc- 
tion ; (3) that it leads to greater shrinkage in the weight 
of the sheep ; (4) that it sometimes produces blood poi- 
soning; and (5) that it is not always effective in killing 
scab. The first objection is at least measurably true. The 
harm does consist mainly in a change in the microscopic 
structure of the fiber resulting from the caustic action of 
the dip. The injury increases with length and fineness 
of the wool, and with increase of sediment in the dip. 
Wools thus treated shrink more than other wools, do not 
scour so readily and do not take dye so uniformly. But 
when the sheep are dipped soon after shearing, this ob- 
jection would not apply. The other objections have not 
been sustained by proof. Much of the injury complained 
of has been the outcome of using solutions wrongly com- 
pounded and improperly prepared. It would seem correct 
to say that no dip has ever been used so extensively and 
with more effectiveness. Moreover it is one of the cheap- 
est of dips. 

It is prepared as follows : To make 100 gallons of the 
dip, weigh out eight pounds of unslaked lime and 24 
pounds of the flowers of sulphur. Place the lime in a ket- 
tle and add enough water to make a lime paste. Add to 
this the sulphur by sifting it in and so stirring the mass 
as to thoroughly mix the ingredients. Add to the mix- 
ture 25 to 30 gallons of boiling water and boil for at least 
two hours, stirring the mixture and sediment frequently 
during the boiling process. The boiling should be con- 
tinued until the sulphur disappears, or almost disappears, 
from the surface of the solution, which is then of a more 
or less chocolate color. Water is added as necessary. 
Then pour the mixture and sediment into a kerosene 
barrel or other vessel placed near the dipping vat and 
provided with a bunghole about 4 inches from the bottom 
Allow ample time for the solution to settle, at least two 
or three hours, and then draw off the liquid by the aid 
of a spigot. This is much superior to the method of re- 



428 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

moving it by dipping, as dipping so stirs up the sediment 
that the separation is not complete. Then add water so 
as to make 100 gallons of the solution. 

When sheep are dipped in transit, as at the stock- 
yards, a dip is wanted in some instances that will destroy 
or remove scab at one dipping. Experience has shown 
that the lime and sulphur dip comes the nearest among 
dips to this requirement. To effectively destroy the scab 
mite, some of the substance should remain for a time in 
the wool. No dip has been found so well adapted to this 
purpose as the lime and sulphur dip. In the early stages 
of the disease eight pounds of lime will suffice for each 
100 gallons of the dip, but in advanced cases of scab with 
thick and hard crusts 12 pounds may be necessary. It is 
highly important when using this dip that the sediment 
shall be kept separate from the ooze. 

Coal tar dips, now known under various names, are 
essentially of two classes. These are known as creosote 
and cresol dips respectively. They are in some instances 
homemade, but in others they are proprietary. This class 
of dips has gained in favor during recent years. 

Coal tar creosote dips contain coal tar, creosote or 
coal tar oils and cresylic acid. These are made capable 
of being emulsified by the admixture of resin soap, which 
on the addition of water forms a mixture that is whitish 
milky in color. These dips have proved very effective 
in destroying scab mites and they also leave the wool in 
a clean, soft and pliable condition, which is a strong point 
in their favor. It is also claimed for them that they are 
more effective as tick lice destroyers than some other dips. 
It is also thought that they are more effective in destroy- 
ing the egg of the scab mite than some other dips, but it 
should be borne in mind that even should this prove true, 
it will not preclude the necessity of a second dipping. 

Cresol dips are made from cresylic acid, which is a 
coal tar product, and soap. In composition they are very 
similar to the product known as lysol. When diluted 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 439 

with water ready for use they form a more or less soapy, 
transparent solution. While they have proved very effec- 
tive in the treatment of sheep scab, to their use there is 
the serious objection that they tend to leave the wool 
in a dry and harsh condition. Because of this defect cresol 
dips are not so likely to come into general use as creo- 
sote dips. These dips are also affected with reference to 
their efficacy by the kind of water used. Soft water is 
much superior to hard water, since the former emulsifies 
more readily. Hard water is greatly improved by the 
addition of lye in the manner practiced in laundries. Be- 
cause of the complicated character of the ingredients that 
enter into the composition of these dips, those who use 
them will probably find it to their advantage to use a 
proprietary coal tar dip which has the approval of the 
United States department of agriculture and in the pro- 
portions specified by the department. 

Carbolic dips have carbolic acid as their base. These 
dips kill parasites very quickly, but the wash soon leaves 
the wool, hence re-infection is soon made possible. To 
prevent such a result one pound of the flowers of sulphur 
should be added to each six gallons of the dip. These 
dips are both homemade and proprietary. The benefits 
from using these dips include the following: (i) The pre- 
pared dips are very easily and readily prepared for use ; 
(2) they act more quickly than tobacco and sulphur dips ; 
and (3) they are apparently more harmful to the ticks 
than the dips just named. The disadvantages are: (i) 
That in the proprietary dips of this class the flockmaster 
is ignorant of the exact character of the materials that he 
is using and consequently of their value ; (2) that the set- 
back to the sheep has been shown to be greater than with 
some other dips ; and (3) they are relatively costly. If 
carbolic dips are used, care must be taken that they form 
an emulsion if they are to be properly effective. If a scum 
arises on the top, a softer water ought to be used. Mean- 



430 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

time the department of agriculture has not recommended 
the use of these dips. 

Arsenical dips which are both homemade and pro- 
prietary have arsenic as their base. Very great caution 
should be observed when using these dips because of their 
highly poisonous character. 

A formula that has received high commendation in 
certain quarters is the following: Commercially pure 
arsenite of soda 14 pounds, ground roll sulphur 345^ 
pounds, water 432 gallons. The arsenite of soda should 
be thoroughly mixed with the sulphur before adding the 
water. 

The advantages from using it are: (i) That it has 
scab-curing properties, and (2) that because of this it 
enters into the composition of a number of dipping pow- 
ders, some of which have been long and more or less ef- 
fectively used. But to its use there are the following dis- 
advantages : (i) Arsenic is a deadly poison, and is there- 
fore dangerous to the sheep, and in some degree to those 
who use it unless much care is exercised in handling it; 
(2) it has a drying effect on the wool, weakens the fiber 
of the new growth that immediately follows, and fails to 
stimulate the growth of the wool as good oleaginous dips 
do; (3) it tends to throw the sheep ofT their feed for sev- 
eral days, in some instances at least, after the dipping; 
(4) its frequent efTect on the skin is to produce excoria- 
tion, blistering and hardness. After the dipping the yards 
into which the sheep are turned should be completely 
destitute of food and litter. Every facility should be 
given to sheep to dry quickly, and on no account should 
they be turned on to the pastures until the dripping has 
ceased. Even after it has ceased, the danger is sometimes 
present for a time that rain may wash enough of the 
arsenic out of the fleece to render the pastures dangerous 
at least for a time. The United States department of 
agriculture has not put the stamp of approval on those 
dips. 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 43I 

The dipping of sheep is usually followed by loss of 
weight for a limited period, and this in turn is usually 
followed by increase. If sheep are weighed just before 
Mipping, and again 24 hours subsequently, it will be found 
that a loss of weight has resulted ranging from one-half 
pound to three and one-half pounds. In the next two or 
three weeks some gain may be looked for. When tobacco 
and sulphur have been used the gains have not been far 
different. From carbolic dips they have proved less sat- 
isfactory. 

The dipping plant — The dipping plant will be dis- 
cussed from the standpoint, first, of the large or range 
flock; second, from that of the ordinary farm flock; and, 
third, from that of the farmer who has but a few ani- 
mals. Dipping at the stockyards is now done by methods 
prescribed by the Bureau of Animal Industry; hence the 
owner of the sheep dipped is not completely at liberty to 
say how the work shall be done. 

When dipping a large flock of sheep that runs up, say, 
into the hundreds or thousands, and for successive years, 
as on the range, to locate permanently the dipping plant 
will be money well spent and also to construct it of ma- 
terial that will endure, as of brick or cement, when these 
materials may be obtained without too much cost. The 
requisites of such a plant include the following: (i) Re- 
ceiving yards in which to hold the sheep that are to be 
dipped. These will vary in size and number with the 
numbers in the flock. From the yard nearest to the 
dipping plant is a narrow drive or chute through which 
the sheep are driven single file to make the plunge into 
the dipping vat. If these yards are provided with a floor 
that drains to a common point, they may be easily slushed 
with the aid of a hose, should this be desired. (2) A dip- 
ping vat or tank. These vary in the shape given to them, 
but the oblong dipping vat is that most commonly used. 
The length will, of course, vary. The longer the vat, the 
greater is the saving in the time effected in dipping be- 



4^2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

cause of the larger number of the animals that may be 
in it at one time, but the more expensive will it be in the 
quantity of the dip called for. It should not be less than 
20 feet, and in some 'instances may exceed 100 feet. The 
depth is from 4 to 5 feet, and the width from 24 to 30 
inches at the top and 9 to 12 inches at the bottom. It 
should be sunk in the ground, save the top 9 to 12 inches, 
and should slant a little in the bottom toward the receiv- 
ing end to facilitate the emptying or removing of the dip. 
It should be protected by a low fence at the places of en- 
trance and exit, to keep the sheep in correct line. Toward 
the place of exit the floor of the vat should incline up- 
ward, the length of the incline being not less than 9 feet, 
and it should have slats or cleats across it about a foot or 
less in distance from one another to enable the sheep to 
walk up and into the dripping pens. (3) There should be 
two dripping pens, with a swinging gate at the upper end 
of the incline, which may open or close either of the two. 
When one division is filled with sheep that have been 
dipped the gate is closed on these until the other is filled. 
The former are then removed through a gate at the far- 
ther end of the pen, which is then ready to receive another 
lot. The floor of each dripping pen should slant some- 
what toward the fence between them. Under it should 
be a gutter to carry the drip back into the vat, but at the 
end near the vat there should be a wire grate to hold 
back droppings and wool that may have been carried 
downward. (4) Provision should be made for preparing 
the dip when such preparing is needed and for heating it, 
whatsoever kind may be used. When prepared dips are 
used water is led into the vat. The dip is then added ac- 
cording to the directions, and it may be heated by steam 
conveyed through a hose attached to a heater. This, 
however, does not preclude the necessity for a boiler to 
heat fresh ooze for replenishing the supply in the vats. 
It will be advantageous to have two heating or boiling 
tanks that will hold from 300 to 400 gallons, and these 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 433 

should be set in brick or stone frames with a fireplace 
underneath. If tobacco and sulphur dip is used, there 
should be two caldrons with covers. If lime and sul- 
phur dip is used, one or more settling tubs may be neces- 
sary. The boiled dip may be pumped into these and then 
drawn ofif into the vats, excluding the sediment. (5) The 
other requisites include : Graduating marks on the inside 
of the vats and heating tanks to indicate the quantity of 
the mixtures present, scales for weighing the ingredients, 
should such weighing be necessary, a portable pump for 
moving the liquid, and one or more thermometers to in- 
dicate the temperature of the ooze, both in process of 
preparation and prepared. 

When dipping a flock of ordinary si::c the dipping vat 
may be permanent and stationary, or it may be movable, 
as in the case of the manufactured metal tanks that may 
be obtained by purchase. The materials used, when of 
home construction, may consist of wood, brick or cement. 
When made of wood, pine planks 1I/2 to 2 inches thick, 
and tongued and grooved, may be used. These are nailed 
on the inside of a frame made of scantlings 2x4 inches or 
larger. In such instances the joints are also pitched over. 
When the flock does not exceed, say, 50 to 100 animals, a 
small portable dipping vat ma}^ be used. Some portion of 
the barn or sheds may be used as a catching pen for the 
time being. The sheep may be lifted into the vat and 
when dipped may be held for a short time at the top of 
the incline to drip. This will do away with the necessity 
for a draining yard, but this method is extremely slow. 
The dripping may be hastened through the squeezing of 
the wool by the attendants. 

Where the numbers exceed those stated, and where 
the sheep are dipped once or twice a year, the plant 
should be permanent. When dipping large flocks, the 
following conveniences should be present : A vat of suit- 
able dimensions, a drive or chute through which the sheep 
are forced into the vat, a yard or its equivalent from 



434 



MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 



which the sheep are forced into the drive, an incline with 
cleats at the further end of the tank, and a draining pen 
to carry the drip back into the vat. There should also 
be suitable heating apparatus. A heater or cooker, such 
as is used in heating or cooking food for swine, may be 
used in preparing and renewing the dip. 




FIG. 21— GROUND PLAN OF DIPPING PLANT AT WAUKESHA, WIS. 
(Courtesy of the owners) 



The method of dipping sheep at the Anoka Stock 
Farm at Waukesha, Wis., will now be submitted, in the 
belief that it will prove helpful to any who may find it 
necessary to construct a dipping plant for the benefit of 
the farm flock. This farm is owned and operated by 
George Harding and Son. The dipping vat is located at 
the rear end of the hog house, which is on sloping ground. 
A platform extends out about 6 feet from the hog house, 
from which stock, as young cattle, sheep and swine, are 
loaded on to a wagon. The passage in the hog house is 40 
feet long and 6 feet wide, and it will hold at one time about 
40 sheep of average size. The door, which is as wide as 
the platform, swings outward, and is thus made to form a 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 



435 



barrier on one side of the passage from the alley to the 
vat. The other side has protection that is temporary and 
movable. The dipping vat comes up against the side of 
the platform and extends outward from the end of the hog 
house. It is on a level with the platform and also of the 
dripping pens at the opposite end. The vat is 9 feet long 
on the top, 6 feet long on the bottom, 3 feet 8 inches deep, 
2 feet wide at the top and i foot at the bottom. These are 
the dimensions inside the vat. The draining yard or pen, 
6 X 12 feet, is divided by a partition so as to make two 
inclosures, each of which will hold 8 sheep. The drain- 
ing pen is slightly depressed toward the partition so as 
to carry the ooze back into the vat. At the end of the 
partition toward the vat is a gate which swings both 



, 


II 




1 




II 


II 


11/ 


-1! IL ifc 




FIG. 22— DIPPING VAT FOR A SMALL FLOCK 



ways. The draining pen and also the projecting platform 
are about 23^ feet from the ground. One man puts the 
sheep into the vat; two men, one on each side, care for 
them when there, and a boy opens the gate, when neces- 
sary at the rear of each dripping pen. From three to 
four sheep are in the tank at one time, and they remain 
in two minutes. The dip is prepared by utilizing the 
boiler in the hog house. The eaves of the hog house sup- 
ply the vat with more or less water all the time, and this 
is used in preparing food for the swine, but the vat is 
thoroughly cleansed after each dipping. In this way but 
little more than an hour is used for dipping 100 sheep 
after all things have been made ready for the work. 

For a small flock a good-sized tub may be used or what 
is more convenient, a small dipping vat such as may now be 



436 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

readily obtained by purchase. The sheep are lifted into 
the vat by two men. When dipped sufficiently long, they 
are held for a short time on a draining board or table that 
will carry the ooze back into the vat. The dripping may 
be hastened by squeezing the wool while the sheep are 
on the draining board. 

The season for dipping — The dipping of sheep may be 
done at almost any season of the year. Should it be as- 
certained that sheep are afifected with scab when tem- 
peratures run low, the deferring of the dipping until the 
arrival of warm weather will unquestionably result in 
greater loss than any loss that may accrue from judicious 
dipping in the winter season. This will also apply to 
sheep that are much infested with ticks, the presence of 
which, because of their numbers, may give rise to great 
suffering on the part of the sheep. The loss resulting 
from the presence of those parasites will be much greater 
than the loss that may arise from judicious dipping in the 
winter season. Experiments have shown that dipping 
may be conducted with a measurable degree of safety 
even in the winter season, and as far northward as the 
parallel 45 degrees, when the sheep are properly cared 
for after the dipping. Such care includes providing them 
with quarters that are reasonably warm and that are com- 
pletely protected from drafts. That dipping may be thus 
conducted without hazard to the sheep has been amply 
demonstrated in experiments conducted at the Wisconsin 
station by the late lamented Prof. John A. Craig. 

The fact remains, nevertheless, that there are seasons 
for dipping that are more favorable for the prosecution 
of this than other seasons. The best time for dipping 
sheep, all things considered, is just after the sheep have 
been shorn in the spring. When dipped at that season, 
the amount of dip called for is much less than at other 
seasons, because of the absence of wool on sheep that are 
thus dipped. If the lambs are dipped at the same time, 
and if due precautions are observed to prevent re-infection, 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 437 

such dipping will go far to prevent re-infection by ticks. 
But to make sure that the freedom from parasitical inva- 
sion will be complete, a second dipping from lo to 14 
days after the first dipping is thought necessary in order 
to destroy the ticks in the one case and the scab mites in 
the other that may have hatched from nits or eggs that 
were not destroyed in the previous dipping. 

Viewed from the standpoint of weather conditions, 
the two best seasons for dipping are those which follow 
the shearing of the sheep and which precede the bring- 
ing of the sheep into winter quarters. When sheep are 
dipped after the usual time for shearing, the dipping takes 
place at that season when the hazard from dipping is 
eliminated because of adverse weather conditions; and 
when it is done in the early autumn, it is done before such 
hazard has come to the management of the flock. But it 
would be better to dip the sheep even in winter than to 
sustain on them an army of ticks after the winter season 
has set in. Even though some loss should follow the 
dipping, it will be less than the loss which follows from 
allowing ticks or scab-infested sheep to go undipped. 

Some authorities claim that the dipping of sheep 
twice a year is a necessity — in the spring and in the 
autumn. These include the names of men who have made 
a name for themselves in sheep husbandry, and especially 
in the leading show rings of prominent states. To take a 
stand in opposition to the conclusions of such men may 
seem presumptuous ; but that is the ground on which the 
author stands with reference to the sheep tick and also 
with reference to the scab mite. If the sheep are properly 
dipped in the spring twice in succession, with an interval 
of 10 days between the dippings, and if due care is ex- 
ercised with reference to the safeguarding of the sheep 
that have been dipped, it should be possible to so free the 
sheep from parasites that infection would be so com- 
pletely eliminated as to render further dipping unneces- 
sary, except in the case of animals brought into the flock 



438 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

from outside sources. The common view that parasites 
may be kept well in check through dipping, but cannot be 
wholly eliminated, is certainly fallacious. It tends to dis- 
courage the effort to maintain flocks that shall be wholly 
free from infestation, and yet it should be possible to 
maintain such flocks as the rule, and not as the exception. 
It should be possible to maintain flocks from year to year 
on the arable farm that would be absolutely free from 
parasitical invasion, and that would, therefore, be free 
from the necessity of being dipped. 

Facts that bear upon dipping — The amount of the 
prepared dip called for cannot be stated, even in an ap- 
proximate way. It will be at once apparent that the 
amount of the dip called for will vary : (i) With the num- 
bers to be dipped ; (2) with the size of the sheep ; and (3) 
with the amount of wool which they carry. It will be at 
once apparent that the proportionate amount of dip called 
for will increase with increase in the numbers of the sheep 
to be dipped, and vice versa. This will be apparent from 
the fact that enough prepared dip is called for to sub- 
merge the sheep before one can be properly dipped. After 
that quantity has been provided, enough only is to be 
added to make up for the dip that has been carried away 
by the sheep after they have left the dripping pens. It 
is also very evident that a large sheep will carry away 
more adherent dip than a small one, and that a long fleece 
will carry away more than a short one, and that a short 
fleece will carry away more than a sheep but recently de- 
prived of its wool. The quantity of dip called for may 
vary from one to four quarts to an animal. 

The renewal of the supply of the dip during the dip- 
ping process should be carefully provided for. If the sup- 
ply of the dip were to run low, the outcome would be im- 
perfect dipping, and a repetition of the dipping in the near 
future. The dip thus provided as supplemental may also 
be made to aid in keeping the dip in the vat at a proper 
temperature. To accomplish this, the dip added should 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 439 

be possessed of a higher temperature than the dip in the 
vat, and also of a higher temperature than is called for in 
the dipping process. The most desirable temperature Is 
100 to no degrees, the internal temperature of the sheep 
being about 103 degrees F. 

The time that the sheep should remain in the dip will 
vary, first, with the strength of the dip used, and second, 
with the nature of the parasite that is causing trouble. 
When dipping for ticks, the sheep should be in the dip for 
at least one minute, and when dipping for scab for not 
less than two minutes. When dipping for scab, it is 
greatly important that the sheep remain full time in the 
dip, as many mites are under the scales which are not 
readily reached by the dips. The head of each sheep 
should also be plunged beneath the dip before it is 
allowed to emerge from the same, except in the case of 
such poisonous dips as the arsenical and carbolic dips. 

It is greatly important that the dipping for scab shall 
be effective. If any of the mites survive underneath the 
scabs they may lay eggs between the dippings that will 
not be hatched out before the second dipping. Should 
this happen, a third dipping may be necessary. To pre- 
vent such a contingency, some have advocated the use of 
a preliminary dip to soften the scabs. This is applied 
two or three days prior to the first dipping. In almost all 
instances, however, the first dipping is given in the usual 
way, and if properly done the instances are very few 
when a third dipping is necessary. Where only a small 
flock is to be treated, it would be practicable, and it may 
also be economical, to rub oil of glycerine over the scabby 
places two or three days prior to the first dipping. With 
sheep newly shorn this treatment would not be difficult. 

When dipping sheep, it is greatly important that they 
shall be carefully handled. They are much averse to tak- 
ing a plunge bath, and when they try to escape from it 
there is neither reason nor justification in handling them 
roughly. They are easily injured. When heavy sheep 



440 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

emerge from the vat, it may be necessary to give them 
some assistance when walking up the incline and to 
squeeze some of the ooze out of the wool before they 
reach the draining pens. When dipped in a tub, two men 
are called for to lift them. One grasps the forelegs after 
the sheep has been laid on its side and the other the 
hind legs, and it is lifted into the tub with the back 
downwards. 

Care of sheep subsequently to dipping — As soon as 
sheep have been dipped, the aim should be to at once 
change their quarters. In fact, it is imperative that this 
shall be done, at least for a time, in the case of sheep scab ; 
otherwise, re-infestation will take place. This may usually 
be accomplished without difficulty after the season for 
pasturing has arrived. But when the dipping must be 
done in the winter season, change of quarters may not be 
practicable. In such instances there is no way of escape 
from the necessity for disinfecting the quarters occupied 
by the sheep. The necessity for disinfecting would not 
seem to be always imperative, \\nien the quarters pre- 
viously occupied by sheep have been completely vacated 
for, say, six months, in the case of scab, disinfection 
would not seem to be necessary. The labor and cost of 
disinfection should not be imposed when the necessity 
for it does not exist. 

When disinfection does take place, it should follow 
the second dipping; that is, when the two dippings follow 
each other in from lo to 14 days, as they should for scab. 
The disinfection should be very thorough. It should be- 
gin by removing all litter and manure from the quarters 
previously occupied by the sheep, including the yards. 
Thorough spraying of the sheds inside and out. of the 
racks, mangers and alleys, and of the yards and fences 
inclosing them should follow. Various ingredients may 
be used in thus disinfecting the premises. A coal tar dip 
will be very effective. A 5 per cent carbolic acid solu- 
tion is also excellent. But whv not use the residue of the 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 44I 

dip in disinfecting the premises, especially when this can 
be done immediately after the dipping of the sheep and 
before the dip has lost any of its strength? Such use of 
the surplus dip should certainly be economical. The noz- 
zle of the sprayer should be such as to apply the dip in 
suitable quantity; that is freely enough and without un- 
necessary waste. Whitewashing following the spraying 
will be an additional safeguard as to the effectiveness of 
the work. 

Removing parasites by other methods — Before dip- 
ping was introduced for destroying parasites on sheep, 
other methods of combating them were of necessity fol- 
lowed. These included: (i) Pouring liquids from a ves- 
sel ; (2) applying unguents to the skin ; and (3) by feed- 
ing certain preparations. Compared with dipping, these 
methods were of necessity laborious, costly and not al- 
ways eft'ective. They were laborious because of the time 
and effort called for to treat sheep singly. They were 
costly because of the large amount of the materials called 
for. They were not always effective, for the reason that 
the application seldom reached all parts of the carcass. 

When liquids were applied by pouring, three persons 
were called for to do the work effectively. The liquid 
most commonly used was a decoction made by steeping 
tobacco leaves or stems. One person held the sheep to 
be treated ; a second person opened the wool along one 
side, a little below the backbone from the neck to the 
tail, and a third person poured in the liquid where the 
wool had been thus shed. In some instances the sheep 
was then set upon its buttock and more or less of the 
liquid was poured on to the lower part of the paunch, 
beginning at the brisket. This method has rendered rea- 
sonably good service in killing ticks, but for treating 
scab it was not greatly helpful. In the absence of a dip- 
ping plant there may be times when this method of com- 
bating ticks may be resorted to with profit, especially in 
the autumn season. 



442 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

The process of applying ointments, usually spoken of 
as smearing, was very common before the dipping age 
began. Mercurial ointment was the favorite unguent 
used. The work of an expert in this line was done some- 
what as follows : He caught the sheep, laid it carefully 
on its side and seated himself on a good-sized batting of 
straw. The head of the sheep rested on the operator's 
shoulder when stooping over it and the body was between 
his legs. To his left wrist the horn of a heifer was at- 
tached, filled with the ointment. This left both hands 
free to shed the wool, the ointment being taken from the 
horn by the middle finger of the right hand and smeared 
in the opening. Two strips were opened down the side 
on one shoulder, and in most instances it was applied on 
some other parts. This method of fighting ticks was quite 
helpful, but to fight scab by this method was greatly 
laborious and more or less dangerous, because of the ex- 
ceedingly poisonous character of the ointment. 

The opinion has been commonly expressed that if 
sulphur is fed to sheep in small quantities, either at short 
intervals or continuously for long periods, that it will ma- 
terially reduce the liability of infestation by ticks. When 
so fed the sulphur is added to the salt in the proportions, 
of, say, two to three parts of sulphur in lOO parts of the 
mixture. While sulphur used as a part of the mixture 
in dipping is more or less of a protection against speedy 
re-infection, since its efifects linger for a time in the wool, 
it does not follow that the same results may be looked 
for from feeding sulphur to the sheep in the manner men- 
tioned. The influence, if any, is not enough to be very 
material. It has also been claimed that when tobacco is 
fed to sheep, it will tend to protect them from internal 
parasites (see page 395), such as stomach worms, and that 
the same or similar results may be looked for from feed- 
ing certain inixtures, proprietary and otherwise. In re- 
gard to these it may be said that their efficacy has not 
been fully demonstrated. 



DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 443 

How far dipping is a necessity — ^Dipping under ex- 
isting conditions is a necessity wherever sheep are 
affected with ticks or scab. While it would be possible 
to eradicate both from infested flocks, the cost of such 
eradication would be much greater. This would be true, 
even of small lots of sheep, since these may be dipped in 
a homemade dipping tub, which involves but little cost. 
Many authorities favor dipping sheep for ticks in the 
spring just after they are shorn, and again in the autumn 
when they are to be brought into winter quarters. If 
when the sheep are dipped for ticks after being shorn, 
the lambs are allowed to go without dipping, the relief 
to the sheep would only be temporary, for soon re-infes- 
tation would follow, the ticks coming from the lambs. 
Dipping the lambs is even more necessary than dipping 
the sheep, for the reason, first, that the ticks virtually 
leave sheep that are closely shorn for a time after they are 
shorn, because the protection has been removed by shear- 
ing, and. second, the ticks are a greater source of annoy- 
ance to the lambs because of the greater tenderness of 
their skin. A second dipping, lo to 14 days later, should 
complete the work of removal, both with ticks and scab. 
If the sheep and lambs are both moved entirely away 
from old quarters after the second dipping, they should 
be thenceforth free from those two classes of parasites. 
Why, then, should further dipping be necessary for such 
removal? 

But there may be some necessity for dipping sheep 
of the middle and coarse-wool breeds, in order to cleanse 
the wool from dirt and to give the skin a bright appear- 
ance. Only some of the dips will do this satisfactorily. 
This claim has been made in behalf of the carbolic dips. 
To accomplish this end when these classes of sheep are 
to be shown, may call for dipping, even when the sheep 
are free from parasites. But it would not be profitable to 
dip sheep thus, simply to cleanse the fleece in the absence 



444 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

of some ulterior purpose, as for instance, that of enter- 
ing the show ring. 

When the flockmaster is breeding sheep and is buy- 
ing occasionally to add to his holdings, the necessity for 
dipping at least once, and probably twice, a year will con- 
tinue. But should the farmer have only a small flock, 
whether he breeds for sale or mainly for a home supply of 
mutton, what is there to hinder him from getting com- 
pletely rid of ticks or scab by the two consecutive dip- 
pings? Why, in such an instance, should there be any 
necessity for further dipping, save in the case of a male 
that may be brought in occasionally to head the flock? 
In the face of such facts, why should the conclusion be 
accepted that dipping is a necessary work that must go 
on from year to year ? 



CHAPTER XXI 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 

In Chapter XXI the following phases of the subject 
of which it treats are discussed: (i) Important considera- 
tions when establishing a flock; (2) Establishing a pure- 
bred flock; (3) Establishing a flock of grades; (4) The 
sires used in grade flocks; (5) The improvement of the 
flock ; (6) Improvement through the sires ; (7) Improve- 
ment through selection ; (8) Improvement through food ; 
(9) When crossing is legitimate ; (10) Breeding for single 
or twin lambs; (11) Much should be left to the good 
shepherd. 

Important considerations — The most important con- 
sideration when establishing a flock of sheep is that of 
environment. Other things being equal, the measure of 
the success in keeping sheep will be proportionate to the 
completeness in adaptation of the environment to the 
needs of the kind of sheep kept. Prominent among the 
phases of environment are: (i) the nature of the land; 
(2) the production of the same ; (3) the character of the 
water supply ; (4) the hazard from predatory animals ; 
and (5) the natural protection. 

The nature of the land, as to its contour and also to 
its freedom from an excess of moisture, should be care- 
fully considered. Level lands are relatively best adapted 
to the heavy breeds, undulating or rolling lands to the 
middle breeds and rugged and mountain lands to the light 
breeds. This does not mean that the heavy breeds, as the 
Lincoln and Cotswold, cannot be kept successfully on un- 
dulating or rolling lands, nor does it mean that the middle 
breeds, as the Shropshire, cannot be kept successfully on 
level lands, but that highest adaptation is as outlined 
above. The heavy breeds will be kept with much less 

416 



44^ MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

success on rugged lands than will attend the keeping of 
light breeds on level lands. 

Lands that are springy or that are saturated with 
water near the surface for any considerable period dur- 
ing the season of grazing are ill adapted to the keeping 
of sheep. They produce grazing too watery to meet the 
needs of sheep, and on such grazing parasites are much 
more numerous, as a rule, than on other grazing. Wet 
ground also favors the increase of foot rot. Sheep that 
are maintained in any considerable degree on such pas- 
ture will deteriorate rapidly. This does not mean, how- 
ever, that they cannot be maintained successfully on low 
lands, even on marsh lands that have been thoroughly 
drained, a fact illustrated in the success that attends the 
breeding of Romney Marsh sheep in Kent, England. 

Level lands are usually more productive than those 
that are rolling. Hence the large breeds can get food on 
these with less effort than on rolling lands where the 
vegetation is less abundant. The middle breeds can 
gather food with less effort on rolling lands than on 
mountain pastures, where the grazing is less plentiful. It 
follows, therefore, that the more abundant the grazing 
and the less the distance traveled by the sheep when 
satisfying their hunger, the larger may be the sheep so 
grazed ; and the more sparse the pastures, and the greater 
the distance to be traveled by the sheep when satisfying 
their needs, the smaller may be the sheep so grazed. It 
is of the utmost importance that the size of the sheep 
kept shall be adapted to the character of the grazing. 
Even on level lands where the production is sparse, the 
heavy breeds should not be kept, as they are ill fitted to 
stand the strain of the travel called for when seeking food. 

The character of the water supply is supremely im- 
portant in the pastures and in the sheds, but especially 
in the former, as shown in Chapter XV. One reason for 
the greater freedom from disease with she^:p grazed on 
rolling pastures arises from their freedom, as a rule, from 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 447 

Stagnant waters, which are so fruitful usually in what 
may be termed the seed germs of parasitic diseases. The 
aim should be at all times to furnish sheep with living 
water, whatever may be the source from which it comes. 

The hazard from such predatory animals as wolves 
and dogs should be well considered by those who pro- 
pose to engage in sheep husbandry. Where such hazard 
exists, the means for protection and the cost of it should 
be taken into account. These have been discussed at 
some length in Chapter XVIII. 

The question of natural protection is always impor- 
tant in relation to sheep husbandry. In some instances 
it relates to shielding the animals from excessive cold, in yet 
others from excessive wind, and yet again from excessive 
rains. Nor should the cost of furnishing artificial protection 
be overlooked. These have been already dwelt upon in 
Chapter XVI. 

Next in importance to the consideration of environ- 
ment, is that of proximity to market when milk lambs 
are to be grown, but this is not so important when the 
lambs are to be carried through the season and fattened. 
Its importance grows less as the wool product becomes 
relatively more important than the mutton product. Of 
course, on distant ranges proximity to market becomes 
impossible, at least in many instances. 

The consideration of food supplies should be well 
weighed. In some instances this involves only the ques- 
tion of pasture, summer and winter. In others it involves 
the question of grazing in summer and coarse fodder, as 
hay, for winter. In yet others it involves the question of 
grazing, providing coarse fodders and also concentrates. 
The question of grazing alone is involved only in mild 
climates ; that of grazing and coarse fodders where the 
sheep are grown under extensive conditions and finished 
somewhere else ; and that of grazing, coarse fodders and 
concentrates where the conditions are intensive. 

Establishing a pure-bred flock — Many farmers may 



448 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

succeed reasonably well in growing a flock of grade sheep 
where careful attention is given to the work. A much 
smaller number will succeed in growing pure breds, as 
the breeding of the latter calls for more skill than the 
breeding of the former. Only one here and there among 
those who breed pure breds will attain that measure of 
success which commands attention far and near, because 
of the high skill that must be present in order to attain 
such an end. The breeding of pure breds should be en- 
tered upon with much caution. It is at least questionable 
if the work should be engaged in by any who have not 
had previous experience in growing or caring for sheep. 
If such persons do engage in breeding pure breds, it 
should be in a small way at first, because of the hazard 
involved. This, however, does not apply to men with 
ample capital and who intrust the work in a great meas- 
ure to an experienced shepherd. Those who have made a 
marked success of breeding grades will generally make a 
success of breeding pure breds. 

When determining the choice of the breed that is 
to be bred, considerations such as relate to environment 
and the disposal of the sheep are all important. In some 
instances environment will admit of the choice of one 
among a number of breeds, in other instances such choice 
is very restricted. Under average farm conditions, where 
the lands are undulating and the production is fair, almost 
any of the breeds of sheep may be kept with a reasonable 
measure of success. But it would be a great mistake to 
introduce the heavy breeds on to pastures that are sparse 
and where the conditions generally are of the rugged 
type. But few breeds of sheep can be produced at their 
best where field roots and concentrates are not furnished. 

Before decision is reached as to the breed that shall 
be grown, the probable demand for good animals of the 
breed should be weighed. Some breeds are almost uni- 
versally popular, as the Shropshire. Some are only popu- 
lar in certain areas, as the Southdown. Some are kept 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 449 

chiefly to supply rams for certain conditions, as when 
Lincohis furnish these to influence the character of the 
fleece under semi-range conditions. The men are rare 
who can force popularity, as it were, upon a community 
where the breed has not been popular heretofore. When 
the environment and the outlook for the successful dis- 
posal of the increase are both in unison with the prefer- 
ence which the breeder has for a certain breed, he is so 
far fortunate, as he can then bring- to his work an enthusi- 
asm that would not exist to the same extent when breed- 
ing sheep of some other breed. But natural preference 
should never be allowed to outweigh the considerations 
mentioned. 

The breeders of pure breds will be greatly handi- 
capped in their work if they are located distant from a 
railroad station. When thus located, buyers are less 
likely to visit them, and the labor and time involved in 
making shipments is greatly increased. Distance from a 
railroad station beyond a certain limit in this fast age 
would almost certainly bring failure to the enterprise, 
though in other respects it should be well conducted. Be- 
cause other breeders may be already established in a 
neighborhood who breed the same kind of stock is no rea- 
son why the beginner should not breed that class of stock. 
It furnishes a strong reason why he should do so, as those 
looking for animals of that particular breed will be more 
ready to visit a locality with several breeders of a breed 
than if only one breeder were located there, because it 
gives them an opportunity of making selection in the line 
of their desires. 

It is greatly important that the foundation animals 
shall be well chosen. They should not only be correct 
in regard to form for the breed, but also in all the lead- 
ing characteristics that appertain to it. They should also 
be correct in pedigree. Some beginners introduce founda- 
tion stock indifferent as to form and with no special merit 
in the ancestral lines. They do so because these may be 



450 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP ' 

obtained at low cost. With such foundation stock a high 
standard of excellence will not be quickly reached. But 
the opposite extreme should be avoided of purchasing 
animals that have been fitted for the fairs and shown at 
the same. Such animals breed less freely than those kept 
under conditions less forced, and on ordinary food they 
will not retain the bloom that should characterize the 
members of a well-kept flock. 

The essentials as to form are given in the book, "The 
Study of Breeds," by the author, and will not be repeated 
here. They may also be obtained from the accredited 
standard of excellence or scale of points, as it is some- 
times called, for each breed, from whatsoever source it 
may be derived. When selecting the females, similarity 
in type should be sought, and the male should be at least 
a good specimen of the breed, and preferably line bred. 
The most suitable type of breeding ewes will probably 
be obtained from rams not extremely masculine in char- 
acteristics, but later those characteristics should be highly 
developed. 

Every possible attention should be given to the 
health of the foundation stock. It would probably be 
correct to say that, under many conditions, several of the 
most troublesome or fatal ailments that afflict sheep 
would never be present were these not brought to the 
farm or ranch in the foundation animals or in purchases 
made subsequently. These include stomach worms, tape- 
worms and nodule disease. No pains should be spared 
in ascertaining the facts about the previous history of 
the flocks with reference to visitations from parasites. 
The presence or absence of these in ewes cannot be as- 
certained from the appearance of mature individuals in 
Ihe flock. A\^hen time has made it apparent that none 
of these ailments are present, the aim should be to avoid 
Ihe introduction of animals of the breed from outside 
sources. Those deficient in fleece, and in the wool char- 
acteristics proper to the breed, should not be chosen, and 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 45 1 

likewise those with dark or black spots in the wool or 
that have a pale, lifeless-looking skin, which points to a 
delicate constitution. The skin should be of a beautiful 
rich pink or rose-colored tint. 

The aim should be to secure foundation stocks from 
reputable breeders, that no shadow may rest upon the 
purity of the breeding. The more outstanding the repu- 
tation of the breeder, the easier will it be for beginners to 
make sales of their surplus stock. It would be easy, how- 
ever, to pay too high a price for the advantage which 
such reputation would bring. When the requisite essen- 
tials are present, the nearer that the animals can be pur- 
chased to the place where they are to be maintained the 
better it is, as the changed conditions are then less vio- 
lent. Inexperienced beginners incur much hazard when 
they begin by importing costly animals from other coun- 
tries. 

Establishing a flock of grades — When establishing a 
flock of grades, careful attention should be given to the 
form of the females chosen. The essentials of form are 
the same virtually as for ewes devoted to the breeding 
of milk lambs (see page 242). Any evidences of delicacy 
should result in the rejection of such ewes for breeding. 
The previous history of the flock as to the presence of 
parasitic diseases should be carefully looked into before 
making purchases, as in the case of pure breds. But 
when the ewes selected are purchased at the stock yards, 
such information may be unobtainable. As in the case 
of purebreds. when time has evidenced that the flock is free 
from such diseases, the aim should be to avoid introduc- 
ing other females in addition to those produced by the 
flock. 

The blood elements possessed by the females, though 
not entirely unimportant are probably of less importance 
than correct form. The presence of many blood elements 
should not be regarded as an objection when choosing 
foundation ewes. Usually, the more mixed their breed- 



452 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ing, the more quickly will improvement be effected, when 
properly mated with prepotent rams, as such dilution of 
blood elements makes it more plastic, and, therefore, 
more susceptible to the influences exerted by the more 
prepotent parent. The exceptions to this rule are found 
in those instances in which the females are already graded 
more or less by descent from pure sires of the breed from 
which these are to be chosen in future breeding. Com- 
mencing with very common females of mixed breeding 
and using only pure-bred males in succession of only one 
and the same breed, in four or five generations, the aver- 
age of the animals for meat-making should fully equal 
the average of the breed from which the sires have been 
chosen. The improvement or change in wool production 
will be less rapid. Improvement through grading is dis- 
cussed by the author in Chapter XXVI of the book "Ani- 
mal Breeding." 

The foundation ewes for grade flocks may usually 
be obtained at the stock yards, where a very considerable 
trade is conducted in supplies of sheep for feeding. As 
a rule they can be more cheaply obtained in autumn. The 
major portion come from the range. They are generally 
of mixed blood elements, but Merino blood more com- 
monly predominates, which is so far a guarant}^ of rug- 
gedness. Such ewes are usually healthy, but this fact 
does not certainly assure the buyer that they are abso- 
lutely free from parasites. The aim should be to buy 
ewes whose teeth have not been seriously injured through 
age. 

Foundation stocks may also be obtained in many in- 
stances from farmers who are breeders of grade sheep. 
When thus purchased, the previous history of the flock 
in relation to disease may be obtainable. The importance 
of obtaining such information cannot be overestimated. 

The sires used in grade flocks — The sires used in 
grade flocks should in all instances be purely bred where 
it is possible to secure them. They should be purely bred, 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 453 

for the reason that it is only rams thus bred that are 
prepotent. Cross-bred or grade rams will be less potent 
in the character of their transmission, because of the ab- 
sence of fixedness in their dominant characters. The 
transmission from such rams will be variable in propor- 
tion as their blood elements are mixed, which is equiva- 
lent to saying in proportion as they are diluted and weak- 
ened. When it is not possible to secure pure-bred rams, 
the higher the grade of the rams chosen, the better. The 
practice of choosing grade sires within the flock is to be 
deprecated. If long continued it will certainly result in 
lowering the standard of the flock, since it is in-and-in- 
breeding that extends to all the animals which compose 
the flock. In such instances the mating will be more or 
less faulty viewed from the standpoint of conformation, 
and it will certainly result in retrogression. 

Prominent among the factors that should influence 
determination as to which breed the rams shall be chosen 
from are environment and the demands of the market. 
The exposure, the grazing and the other food supplies 
should be considered in relation to environment. Only 
rugged sheep, as those possessed of much Merino blood, 
should be kept on the ranges, and only mountain breeds 
on mountain lands. Only light breeds should be kept 
on rugged and sparse pastures, and breeds that naturally 
produce lambs early should not be allowed to do so 
where succulence cannot be supplied to the dams. 

Dominance in the object for which the sheep are 
kept, the most suitable size of lamb and the season when 
it is wanted should be considered in relation to market 
demands. When wool is the dominant object sought. 
Merino blood should, as a rule, be prominently in evi- 
dence. When mutton is the chief consideration, rams 
should be chosen from the mutton breeds ; when the dual 
quality or mutton and wool are both sought, as the mar- 
kets run today, these will be secured in the highest degree 
from choosing rams of one or another of the middle-wool 



454 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

breeds. The Southdown pure-bred sire has been found 
to produce lambs highly adapted to present market con- 
ditions, which give the preference to lambs that reach 
the market in the autumn, that weigh less than loo 
pounds alive. Lambs of good finish that weigh not more 
than 80 or 90 pounds are preferred to those that are 
heavier. 

The season at which the lambs are to reach the mar- 
ket should also be carefully considered. Winter lambs 
come most readily through the use of Dorset sires. Early 
spring lambs are, as a rule, most easily obtained from 
ewes, in which Merino blood is well represented. Rea- 
sonably early lambs, possessed of much size, may be most 
surely obtained by the use of Hampshire sires. 

Should the fiock be high grade, the aim should be 
to use sires of the breed which have furnished the domi- 
nant blood elements to the females. The results from 
such breeding are more certain than they would be should 
sires be used from some other breed. For instance, should 
the Shropshire blood be dominant in a flock of Shropshire 
grades, the results from the use of Shropshire sires on 
these will be more certain than those that would follow 
the use of Lincoln sires. 

But in some instances the demands of the market 
may call for the use of a sire possessed of blood elements 
dififering from those that dominate in the ewes. 

The mistake of using pure-bred rams of inferior in- 
dividuality, even on grade flocks, should be sedulously 
avoided, lest the character of the transmission should be 
similar. While the breeders of grade flocks would not be 
justified in paying such prices for rams as are sometimes 
paid by the breeders of high-class pure-breds, the aim 
should be to use those only that are possessed of good 
individuality. 

The requisites as to form and covering in a good sire 
for even a flock of grades may be summarized as follows : 
He should possess compactness of form, a suitable cover- 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 455 

ing- of wool and evidences of vigor. The first includes 
a body wide, deep and round, supported by short, straight 
limbs. The second includes a fleece uniform in leng-th, 
fineness, strength and density, and evenly distributed over 
the body. The third includes much width and fullness 
of chest, a strong back, a powerful and short neck, a 
strong and wide head, a pink skin and an active carriage. 
Other requisites are more or less important. There are 
also peculiarities pertaining to individual breeds that 
should not be overlooked. These may all be learned 
through a study of the standards of excellence pertaining 
to each breed. 

Fancy points, as the degree of the covering on the 
head and legs, are of much less importance when choos- 
ing rams to head grade flocks than when choosing them 
to head those that are pure. Good, strong and useful 
rams for grade flocks may in some instances be obtained 
cheaply, because of some slight deficiency or superfluity 
that would unfit them for service in a valuable pure-bred 
flock. 

The improvement of the flock — It would seem correct 
to say that absolute perfection is never reached in any 
flock ; howsoever good it may be as a flock or in the in- 
dividuals that represent it, there is always room for fur- 
ther improvement. In a large majority of instances there 
is room for wide improvement, and it ought to be the aim 
of every owner of a flock to reach the maximum of im- 
provement attainable under his conditions. The leading 
factors concerned in improvement are: (i) The sires 
used; (2) selection; and (3) food. 

The sires exert or should exert an influence far reach- 
ing in the improvement of form and covering and in 
bringing about uniformity in the flock. This improve- 
ment does not result from any superior influence pos- 
sessed by the sire by virtue of his sex. It is the outcome 
of his superior prepotency, and where this is wanting 
these results will not follow. The sire also exerts an 




4&6 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 457 

important influence on stamina in the flock, on prolifi- 
cacy and on maturity. 

Selection is an indirect rather than a direct agent in 
effecting improvement. It does not directly improve the 
individual as the sire does or as food does, but it makes 
further improvement possible in the individuals that shall 
be born in the flock, through discarding the inferior and 
retaining the superior for future breeding. It thus aids 
materially in effecting improvement and in bringing about 
a higher uniformity. 

Food effects improvement by the direct influence 
which it exerts upon the entire organism of the individ- 
uals in the flock. It pow^erfully influences size, w^ool pro- 
duction and stamina and it exerts a far-reaching influence 
on the functions pertaining to reproduction and the sus- 
tenance of the progeny. It is the supplement and also 
the complement of the other agencies used in effecting 
improvement, and unless it is furnished in liberal supply 
all attempts to improve the flock will fail. 

Improvement through the sires — As already inti- 
mated, improvement coming from the sires arises from 
their potency in the transmission of desirable qualities. 
Of course, in breeding pure breds, the sires will all be 
chosen from the same breed. In breeding grades, the 
choice of the breed from which the sires shall be taken 
rests entirely with the owner. Some of the owners of 
grade flocks select the successive sires used from the same 
pure breed, others select for a longer or a shorter period, 
first from one breed and then another. The former 
method is very much superior to the latter. By the first 
method improvement will be continuous until the average 
of the animals of the flock reaches the level in their individ- 
uality of the average of the breed from which the sires 
have been chosen. This method of breeding makes more 
and more stable the properties possessed by each succeed- 
ing generation. By the second method the tendency is to 
render more and more unstable the elements of inherit- 



458 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

ance and, consequently to render their transmission more 
uncertain. 

The time called for to bring grade sheep up to the 
level of the flock from which the sires are chosen will 
depend to some extent on the blood lines possessed when 
the upgrading begins, and to a greater extent on the pre- 
potency of the sires. It would seem correct to say that 
in no instance would more than five generations of such 
breeding be necessary to effect such improvement in the 
animal form, and in some instances three generations 
would suffice. For making meat, the grades thus im- 
proved would probably average better than the pure 
breds, as the presence of alien blood brings with it in 
many instances renovating power. Many generations of 
such breeding would be called for to make the wool fibers 
resemble exactly those of the breed from which the sires 
have come. Many generations would also be necessary 
to make transmission as certain from animals thus up- 
graded as from sires of the breed used in improving them. 

The rapid improvement that may be effected in the 
meat-making qualities of grade sheep finds illustration in 
a certain line of experimental work conducted at the 
Minnesota Experimental Station, under the direction of 
the author. Ewes were purchased of the commonest 
types. Some were purchased at the stock yards at South 
St. Paul, and some from farmers. The former came 
from the western ranges. The breeding, especially of 
those bred on the ranges, was very much mixed. There 
were evidences in their make-up of the blood of the 
coarse wool, the middle wool and the fine wool breeds. In 
many of them the evidences of Merino blood were dom- 
inant. Dark-faced sires, chiefly Shropshire, were used 
upon them in some instances for one, and in others for 
two generations. A number of the females were then 
selected in the autumn of 1900. These were mated with 
a well-bred and well-chosen Southdown ram and a num- 
ber of the lambs were prepared for exhibition at the In- 



\ 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 459 

ternational Fair held in Chicago the following year. They 
were awarded champion honors for the best pen of five 
lambs in the grade classes in competition open to the 
world. One of the number was awarded first honors in 
the dead meat class at the same fair. Thus quickly may 
improvement be affected by judicious upgrading. 

It may not be correct to say that in-breeding should 
not be practiced to any extent, but if practiced it should 
be with caution and the exercise of much good judgment. 
When the mating is correct, good qualities will be in- 
tensified, but when incorrect, those that are undesirable 
will likewise be intensified. The mission of in-and-in- 
breeding is to aid in- the establishment of breeds, 
rather than to aid in the establishment of flocks from 
breeds already established. With properly chosen sires, 
in-and-in-breeding is safer in grade than in pure-bred 
flocks, as the former are usually possessed of more of the 
elements of ruggedness than the latter at the time of the 
establishment of the flock. But even in grade flocks it is 
of questionable utility unless when the flock is being es- 
tablished, because of the hazard incurred. The evils to 
be feared are loss of size and stamina, and also more or 
less prolificacy. But it may not only be allowable, but 
judicious, to use the first sire chosen on his progeny. 

Improvement through selection — Selection in a flock 
has reference, first, to the retention of lambs that are to 
be used for future breeding, and, second, to the rejection 
of ewes that are not desirable any longer because of some 
defect or because of age. The ewe lambs to be retained 
should, of course, be the tops of the flock. They should, 
of course, be chosen on the basis of size, form, covering 
and uniformity in body and fleece. The selection should 
be rigid, as in no other way can a high standard be real- 
ized. It would seem safe to say that the measure of the 
estimate put upon a flock by visitors is the extent to 
which inferior specimens are absent, rather than the ex- 
tent to which superior specimens are present. 



460 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

All females should be rejected for future breeding that 
are off in form, that have any physical defect, that have 
proved shy breeders or poor nurses and that are begin- 
ning to lose or are soon to lose their teeth through age. 
Ewes apparently well chosen as lambs lose form to some 
extent in some instances as they mature, and should be 
discarded, as they so far mar uniformity in the flock and 
may also transmit this same defect. Physical defects may 
relate to such happenings as injury to the udder, which 
may impair or destroy its function, to a tendency to cast 
the uterus when the lambs are born and to some ex- 
crescences on the skin that are unsightly, also to injury 
to the limbs. Shy breeders are unprofitable, as when they 
fail to breed the only return for the year is the wool, 
and when they do breed, they may transmit the same 
characteristic of shy breeding to their progeny. Ewes 
that are aging are more expensive to feed than others, 
produce less wool, do not feed their lam.bs as well and 
mar the appearance of the flock. 

The weaning season is the best season to set them 
aside for being turned off, as they may then be prepared 
for market and disposed of before the closing in of the 
winter. Where flocks are large, the plan of promptly 
marketing ewes to be discarded as soon as the reason for 
such action is first noticed is to be commended. If this 
is not done, these ewes in some instances will be over- 
looked and left in the flock. Any kind of mark that will 
readily indicate such animals will, of course, suffice, as. 
for instance, stamping coloring matter on some part of 
the body. 

One would imagine at first thought that where the 
culling is close and continued from year to year, the time 
would come when culls would not appear and that the 
necessity for culling the lambs at least would be no longer 
necessary. This hope, should it l)e cherished, will never 
be fully realized. The principle of variation is operative 
as well as the principle that "like begets like," and some 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 461 

of the variations are downward. This happens in the 
best-regulated and best-managed flocks, but the fre- 
quency with which culls appear decreases measurably 
with increase in the perfection of the management. Varia- 
tions in the degree of the vigor possessed by the parents 
at generation and during pregnancy, lead to variations in 
the progeny. Other influences also are probably similarly 
operative. The time will never come, therefore, in any 
flock when the necessity for rejecting and discarding will 
no more exist. 

Improvement through food — Attention to the food 
requirements cannot be too closely or too constantly ex- 
ercised. The wisest choice of sires and the closest and 
most intelligent selection will be in vain unless the food 
fed is such as will maintain a high standard of improve- 
ment. If food is to efifect commensurate improvement, 
it must be adapted: (i) To the needs of the sheep; (2) 
to the needs of the breed; and (3) to the requirements 
of the breeding. 

It would be correct to say that some foods given alone or 
in combination are adapted in a general way to the feeding 
of all classes of sheep, but it would not be correct to say 
that such adaptation is exactly equal in the different 
classes of sheep. 

With sheep maintained for different uses, or with 
sheep of different breeds, with reference to the individual 
sheep, the food should be so regulated as to meet its needs 
at diflferent stages of development and under difl'erent 
conditions as to use, and it should be of a character that 
will help to maintain much of uniformity in condition 
throughout the year. Young lambs, for instance, must 
have the best class of food given to the flock. After wean- 
ing, they should be given the preference in pastures and 
an amount of grain that would probably be wasteful if 
fed to nature sheep at that season. Pregnant ewes should 
be given foods that will produce much milk, while shear- 
lings not pregnant may thrive on food diflferent in kind 



462 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

and less costly. To cover this question fully would mean 
going into all the details of feeding. It can only be said, 
further, at this time that if the food is to prove an effec- 
tive means of improving flocks, it should be given so as 
to best meet the needs of the individual sheep under all 
the conditions of development and maintenance to which 
it may be subjected, and it should be given, as far as may 
be practicable, to maintain as much of equilibrium in con- 
dition as may be attainable, otherwise the character of 
the fleece will suffer. 

That the difference, to some extent at least, in the 
food requisites for different breeds must be given some 
recognition, will be apparent from the influence that food 
has exercised in the evolution of the various breeds. 
Where the food furnished differs materially from that 
given under the conditions of environment that evolved 
the breed, modifications will follow. These will be ad- 
verse should the food supplies be lower than breed char- 
acteristics call for to sustain them in equilibrium; and 
they will effect improvement in some respects if higher 
than the breed characteristics have previously called for. 
Thus it is that heavy breeds of sheep retrograde if put on 
rations that will maintain equilibrium in the small breeds, 
and thus it is that the latter improve in some respects 
when the food is an improvement on the food consumed 
while the breed was being evolved. 

The food fed should meet the needs of the sheep as 
modified by breeding. Suppose a large sheep is crossed 
upon a small one, the size of the progeny will be in- 
creased as compared with the size of the dams which pro- 
duced it. This will mean that food supplies that may 
have met the needs of the dams will not meet the needs 
of the progeny. For the latter they must be more lib- 
eral. This explains why increased size, especially in 
crossing and grading, results in failure when the food 
given is not sufficiently liberal. 

When crossing is legitimate — Ordinarily the crossing 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 463 

of pure breeds, especially when they are pedigreed and a 
record kept of the pedigrees, is not to be commended. 
Their value is such in a large majority of instances as to 
make such crossing unwise. The individuals of the breed 
in the pure form are usually worth more than the progeny 
obtained from crossing them. But there may be instances 
when such crossing is admissible. Superior specimens are 
sometimes obtained thus for exhibition purposes. Such 
crossing as may be necessary to meet exhibition require- 
ments is legitimate. When drafts of ewes are made from 
the mountain breeds with a view to send them to the 
market, it is usually profitable to cross them with males 
of some larger breed after they have been put on more 
productive pastures and to sell them and their progeny 
after they have been made ready for the block through 
high feeding. The same is true in some instances of 
Merino ewes. 

The attempt to improve through crossing where 
herds are involved should not usually be carried beyond 
the first cross. The result from a second cross and also 
from succeeding crosses are frequently disappointing. 
This arises from the tendency to reversion in such lines 
of breeding. The tendency to reversion is the outcome 
possibly of antagonism in the dominant properties in the 
leading blood lines for supremacy. 

In seeking improvement through grading, an out- 
cross may be used in some instances with advantage, and 
the same is true in some instances of breeds. But the 
nature of the outcross in the two instances is different. 
In the first instance it means introducing a sire of a differ- 
ent breed; in the second, it means introducing a sire of 
the same breed but of a different strain of blood and usu- 
ally from an outside herd. Action in the first instance 
may result in improving size and wool production, should 
these fall below a certain standard. But in such instances 
it will usually be wise policy to return again to the sires 
belonging to the breed from which they were chosen pre- 



464 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

viously. The outcross in such instances is to effect a pur- 
pose, and when that purpose is attained, as it usually 
is in a single outcross, such crossing for the time being 
should cease. Action in the second instance aims to in- 
sure renovation and improved stamina when indications 
of deterioration may have appeared. These outcrosses, 
however, should be introduced with great caution. They 
should only be made in the flock generally after their 
potency has been proved in the progeny resulting from 
the use of the sires thus brought in on a few females of 
the flock. 

Breeding for single or twin lambs — That the breed- 
ing may influence the proportion of the lambs that shall 
be of single or plural birth, must be conceded. As to this 
there cannot be any room for a difference in opinion, but 
opinions may differ with reference to some of the influ- 
ences which bear upon this question and the part which 
these play respectively. It would seem to be true that 
the difference in the prolificacy of breeds has been 
brought about by breeding, accompanied by selection and 
food. 

Opinions differ as to the desirability of having ewes 
produce but one or two lambs at a birth. In some in- 
stances they produce three, and in rare instances even 
more, but a larger number than three is not desirable. 
The ewe furnishes milk from but two teats, hence the 
lambs do not share equally in the milk produced, nor is 
one ewe capable of furnishing all the milk that is neces- 
sary to grow three lambs at their best. 

The following are chief among the arguments in 
favor of the production of single lambs: (i) They forge 
ahead more rapidly when young, and in consequence may 
be marketed at an earlier age ; (2) that a ewe is not so 
capable of feeding two lambs properly as of feeding but 
one; hence (3) it is easier to maintain a high standard 
of development in flocks in which single lambs are the 
rule. There is considerable force in the first argument 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMTROVING IT 465 

when the object is to send lambs early to the block, or to 
sell them for breeding while yet considered lambs. In 
the second argument there is a measure of truth, as it is 
doubtless true, as sheep are usually cared for, that better 
specimens come, on the whole, from the ranks of single 
lambs than from those that are twins. But where sheep 
are cared for as they ought to be it has been found quite 
possible to maintain a high standard of excellence in 
breeds in which plural births are numerous. This has 
been amply shown in the history of the Dorset breed, 
and also in the Hampshires, a breed of large size. While 
the third argument is true, it does not follow, as just 
stated, that a high standard cannot be maintained when 
plural births are numerous. 

The chief arguments in favor of plural births are : 
(i) That more profit will ordinarily result when these are 
numerous than when they are infrequent ; and (2) that 
this is realized or may be realized without lowering the 
standard of development. In both arguments there is 
much force. The value of the dam and two lambs nursed 
by her, when mature, is certainly greater than a ewe and 
her one lamb, the development being equal in the two 
instances. The development of the twins at maturity 
may be fully equal to that of the single lamb, but the de- 
velopment of the former will not be equal to that of the 
latter at an early age. It would seem correct to say that 
moderate and continuous growth will produce maximum 
development fully equal to that resulting from rapid 
growth, but it will not produce it so quickly. Where win- 
ter lambs are grown it may be desirable to encourage the 
production of single lambs, but where the aim is to grow 
sheep for the lines of production for w^hich they are usu- 
ally grown, the production of twins should certainly be 
encouraged. 

Breeding may be made to encourage the production 
of single Iambs or twins through selection in both sire 
and dam. That such production may be increased in 



466 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 

either direction through the choice of dams has been 
demonstrated in the experience of many breeders, espe- 
cially when increase in twins has been sought. Whether 
it would be possible to so enstamp the habit of producing 
twins on any breed to the extent of excluding the birth 
of any single lambs, has not been demonstrated, but it 
would seem to be of possible attainment through the con- 
tinuous selection of dams and sires of plural birth. That 
the sire influences to any extent the numbers produced at 
a birth as the result of his inheritance has been disputed, 
and experiments to determine this matter beyond possi- 
bility of dispute have not yet been forthcoming. If, 
however, it is true that the sire of dairy cattle does exer- 
cise an influence on milk production in his progeny, a fact 
that is generally accepted, it would seem reasonable to 
believe that a ram would influence function in his progeny 
with reference to the number produced at a birth. It has 
been noticed by breeders that more lambs may be looked 
for from mature rams than from ram lambs. 

That food exercises an important influence on prolifi- 
cacy in flocks of sheep is shown: (i) In the more abun- 
dant production on an average of the more vigorous ewes 
in the flock : (2) in the more abundant production from 
ewes mated when the powers of the system are building 
up; and (3) in the more abundant production from rams 
vigorous and well sustained, as compared with those un- 
der conditions the opposite. The fact last stated has been 
disputed, as previously intimated. It would be easily 
possible, however, to hinder prolificacy by feeding food 
too stimulating and too lacking in succulence. The most 
abundant breeding results not from a high condition of 
flesh, but from a high condition of the same accompanied 
by what may be termed a sappy condition of the system, 
resulting from feeding succulent food. 

Much left to the shepherd — In managing a flock of 
sheep much should be left to the judgment of the shep- 
herd, where the flock is of sufficient size to justify keep- 



ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 467 

ing one. The shepherd has a knowledge of the flock that 
is more intimate and thorough than the knowledge of the 
same possessed by anyone else. Especially with refer- 
ence to details of management his know^ledge is the most 
complete, and, therefore, when qualified for his work, in- 
terference with such details on the part of the owner of a 
flock should never take place, except for the best of 
reasons. 

Usually the shepherd is a good judge of sheep. He 
knows which are the best producers and also those that 
ought to be discarded, whether because of age or for some 
other reason. If sheep are to be added to the flock by 
purchase, the opinion of the shepherd should be given due 
weight with reference to the wisdom of the transaction. 
In such matters the opinion of the shepherd is frequently 
superior to that of the flock owner. 

In the management of breeding flocks much may be 
left to the wise shepherd in making sales privately. Here, 
again, his intimate knowledge of the flock makes him a 
safe adviser. In fact, with some general instructions, he 
may manage the buying and selling, to the great relief 
of the owner, and also to his advantage. Responsibility 
amicably shouldered upon a competent man adds to his 
fidelity and usefulness. 

The faithful shepherd is also deserving of much con- 
sideration at the lambing season. His labors at such a 
time in a large flock are abundant and exacting. His rest 
is disturbed, it may be to the extent of making it impossi- 
ble for him to meet the needs of the flock as they should 
be met. Under such conditions he should be given full 
liberty to call such additional help as will enable him to 
tide over this trying season with a minimum of loss. At 
many of the fairs in England prizes are also offered to the 
shepherds who have reared the largest percentage of 
lambs from flocks containing ewes not fewer in number 
than the prize list calls for. Some of those shepherds 
have the same flock in charge during practically the en- 
tire period of their ability to render such service. 



INDEX 



Page 
A 

Age, determining, of sheep 357 

Ailments of 385 

Abortion 413 

Bloat 404 

Broken limbs 417 

Bronchitis 411 

Catarrh 410 

Colic 40S 

Diarrhea 406 

Digestive disorders 405 

Foot-rot 414 

Garget 420 

Goiter 419 

Inversion of womb 414 

Navel diseases 418 

Ophthalmia 419 

Parasites 387, 391 

Pleurisy 412 

Pneumonia 411 

Prevention and treatment of 385 

Retention of afterbirth 413 

Retention of excrement 418 

Stretches 409 

Tumors 419 

Urinary troubles 420 

White scours 417 

Wool balls 418 

c 

Corral and its place 373 

D 

Dams, after weaning 252 

Assisting, in labor 98 

Care of 247 

Disposing of 253 

Grazing for, before weaning 265 

Dips, arsenical 430 

Carbolic 429 

Coal tar 428 

Lime and sulphur 426 

Dipping 421 

Basic elements in 425 

Care of sheep subsequently to... 440 

Classes of 422 

Facts of 438 

Necessity of 443 

Objects sought from 421 

Plant for 431 

Season for 436 

Diseases, protection and treat- 
ment of 3'*5 



Page 

Dogs 366 

Effect of, upon sheep husbandry. 366 

In the United States 376 

Place for, in sheep husbandry. . 377 

Protection of sheep from 369 

Worrying sheep by 368 

E 

Ewes 122 

Caring for 97 

Exercise for breeding 133 

Food for 130 

Grading of 129 

Management of, at breeding sea- 
son 124 

when on pasture 141 

when in labor 98 

when weaning Iambs 142 

to be discarded 144 

from weaning until bred 122 

Wintering 126 

P 

Fattening 203 

Concentrates suitable for 215 

Duration of, period 231 

Fodders suitable for 211 

General observations on 235 

Increase from sheep while 232 

Profit from, in winter 233 

Selecting sheep for 205 

Screenings for 226 

Succulence suitable for 213 

Sugar beet pulp for 223 

Two lots in succession 227 

Fertility, in paddocks 8 

Removed by sheep 3 

Finishing sheep, on corn 197 

Field roots 200 

Grass pastures with grain 189 

Grass pastures without grain.... 187 

Other crops 201 

Peas 199 

Rape 192 

Western grain fields 191 

Flock 445 

Breeding in 464 

Crossing in, legitimate 462 

Culling of 348 

Disposal of 352-356 

Establishing a 447 

Improvement of 455 

Pure bred 256 

Sires used in 452 



469 



470 



INDEX 



Page 

Grazing 164 

Benefits from supplemental 184 

Grain 24 

Grass, for winter 174 

Sheep on grass 27 

Sheep on supplementary 170 

Grub in the head 402 

!• 

Lambs 93 

Aid to young 100 

Care for, until weaned 108 

Care for, subsequently to weaning 113 

Castrating 114 

Creep for 110 

Docking 117 

Food for, when weaned 113 

Food for young 108 

Rearing, by hand 105 

Registration of 119 

Reviving chilled 102 

Season for, to come 93 

Supplemental food for 107 

Weaning Ill 

M 

Milk lambs 238 

Care and food for 262, 249 

Changing the breeding habit for. . 241 

Definition of 238 

Essentials in 239 

Growing, from grazing 253 

Marketing 250 

Obtaining 240 

Quarters suitable for 246 

Subsequently to weaning 266 

Where should be grown 24=i 

Mutton, aim in production of 55 

Breeds producint? 35 

Conditions favorable to, producing 46 

Crossing breeds for 48 

Influences affecting 41 

P 

Pastures 164 

Grass, permanent 167 

Grass, temporary 169 

Grass, supplementary 170 

Sheep finished on grass 176 

without grain 1"7 

Grass, for winter grazing 174 

Rams H9 

Disposal of 160 

Food and care during Prst winter 152 

Food from weaning until winter. . 149 

Management at season of service 157 

Sale, in summer 154 

Stock, in summer 15=i 

Stock, in winter 153 

Trimming feet of 162 



r.ise 

s 

Sheep 1 

As brush destroyers 23 

Fertilizers of poor land 7 

Fertilizers for gardens 10 

Improvers of clover seed yields 28 

Improvers of soil 7 

Weed destroyers 13 

Age to be shown 279 

Disposal of 250 

Droppings of, are valuable .... 5 

E,\cessive fatness in 277 

Exercise for 276 

Fitting, for sale 355 

Food for, while nursing 107 

Handling, when shearing or wash- 
ing 293 

Methods of shearing 300 

Methods of washing 291 

Preparing, for shipping 359 

Quarters for 319 

Shipping 361-365 

Should be kept on all farms 29 

Show, in transit to fairs 272 

Sources from which obtained .... 203 
Special treatment for .Merino .... 271 

Tagging, when washed 296 

Time and place for shearing . . . 29S 

Trimming the feet of 307 

Washing, before shearing 2S6 

Washing and smearing, for show 269 

Salt 309 

Necessity for feeding 315 

Supplying, in summer 316 

Supplying, in winter 318 

Scab, sheep 388 

Dipping sheep for 421 

Self-feeders and their uses 221 

Shelter 319 

Essential features of 326 

In summer and winter 319-321 

Locating 322 

T 

Tapeworm 395 

Tick, sheep 387 

Ticks, dipping sheep for 421 

W 

Water 309 

Facilities for 336 

Good health and 314 

Necessity for 309 

Providing, in summer 311 

Providing, in winter 312 

Weeds 13 

Freeing lands from 17 

Wool 73 

Aim in production 53 

Break in 87 

Breeds producing 35 

Carding and combing 68 

Characteristics of 73 

Classification of 33, 64 

Closure in 83 



INDEX 



471 



Pdge 
Vool — Continued 

Color in 80 

Crimp or curl in 78 

Definition of •. 58 

Density in 77 

Distribution of, over body 70 

Fiber in 60, 74 

Felting in 84 



Influences hurtful to 37 Worm, stotnach 



Page 
Wool — Continued 

Kemp in 88 

Softness in 79 

Toppiness in 89 

Trimming, for fairs 267 

Uniformity in 81 

Watery 86 

Yolk in 62 



391 



